ZAKAT ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

Zakat is not a burden, but an achievement.

Only successful people are lucky!

 

Zakat comes from the word zaka which means holy, good, blessing, growing and developing. According to Shari'a terminology, zakat is a noun, namely a term for a certain amount of property that has met the requirements and is required by Allah to be released and given to those who are entitled to receive it. So, every property that has been given zakat will be holy, clean, good, blessed, grow and develop (At-Taubah: 103 and Ar-Rum: 39).

In the Koran, zakat and prayer are often mentioned together, which shows how zakat is an important pillar of Islam. Some even say that zakat and prayer are used as symbols of the entire teachings of Islam. "And establish prayer and pay zakat." If prayer symbolizes a person's relationship with God, then zakat symbolizes the relationship between humans. One vertical and one horizontal; it's complete!

"They were not ordered, but to worship Allah sincerely and to be inclined to practice religion because of it, as well as to perform prayers and pay zakat and that is the straight religion" (Al-Bayyinah: ...??).

Zakat is an achievement, not an obligation. And, indeed. In my village, only great farmers pay zakat. Farmers whose harvests reach Monday are discussed and praised by people in the village. Likewise, in farming, zakat must be seen as motivation. We try to earn money so we can give the most and best zakat. Like Qabil and Abil racing before.

The desire to give the most zakat, encourages us to earn a lot of income. The way to do this is not to increase the business margin to a large extent, but to remain with a "medium" margin but increase the scale. Trade people's language: "improving the party".

Order to Issue Zakat

As one of the pillars of Islam, zakat is fardhu 'ain and is a ta'abudi obligation. Zakat is a formal social worship, bound by conditions and harmony. In the Qur'an, the command for zakat is as important as the command for prayer. "Take zakat from some of their wealth, with that zakat you cleanse and purify them and pray for them. Indeed, your prayer (becomes) peace of mind for them. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing." (QS. At-Taubah: 103)

Zakat is an obligation for a Muslim who has property and meets the nisab. Among the wisdom of paying zakat is that it cleanses the human soul from stinginess, ugliness and greed for wealth, as well as helping Muslims who are in a state of need.

Arguments for the Existence of Agricultural Zakat

The word of Allah SWT, to worship mahdah we must have wealth, especially to pay zakat. It seems that so far there has been a bit of a mistake, where the obligation of zakat is often understood only if we have assets. Even though in fiqh this understanding is correct, the spirit is to earn money and collect wealth so that we can carry out zakat. You have to give alms and for that you have to have wealth! Your zakat gets bigger if you are rich. And Allah knows for sure, you can be rich.

To pray, we also have to have wealth. We need money to buy clean and appropriate private parts. Almsgiving also has extraordinary power. In the Koran, it is explained that whoever sets aside some of his wealth to spend in the way of Allah, he will be blessed with an easier life and more sustenance. That is God's promise. Allah will never break a promise.

There are at least two benefits of giving zakat. First, there are economic benefits: contributing to the upliftment of the community's standard of living, advancing the organization at the micro level and fostering economic growth at the macro level, and expanding investment and production—thereby creating jobs and enhancing the community's welfare.

Second, there are spiritual benefits. Paying zakat—deliberately setting aside what is readily at hand to give to others—purifies the soul of stinginess, greed, and other spiritual ailments. It also invites blessings and cultivates compassion toward fellow members of the community. Giving is a source of pride.

Zakat also elevates a person's spiritual standing. It is the fourth pillar of Islam. The term itself signifies cleansing and purification; as indicated in divine scripture, setting aside a portion of one's sustenance for charity and good deeds serves to purify and sanctify one's actions.

In Islam, zakat is categorized into two types: zakat fitrah and zakat maal (wealth-based zakat). Zakat maal is the obligatory alms paid from the proceeds of a person's livelihood, specifically in the form of tangible assets or goods.

Assets subject to zakat maal include gold, silver, livestock, agricultural produce (such as rice), and the like. Gold and silver are viewed as assets that appreciate in value, thereby necessitating the payment of zakat on them. Currencies in circulation at the time are also classified under the category of gold and silver; consequently, savings, time deposits, checks, stocks, and other securities fall into this category. This also extends to houses, land, vehicles, and other assets, such as commercial inventory.

According to the National Zakat Agency (Baznas), an asset qualifies as maal (wealth) if it meets two criteria: (1) it can be owned, stored, accumulated, and controlled; and (2) it yields benefits in the customary sense—examples include houses, cars, livestock, agricultural produce, money, gold, and silver. The conditions for an asset to be subject to zakat are that it must be fully owned, capable of growth or appreciation, meet the minimum threshold (nisab), exceed basic living needs, be free from debt, and have been held for a full year (haul).

Mandatory Conditions for Zakat

Several conditions must be met to be obligated to pay zakat: being a Muslim, being free (not a slave), having full personal ownership, meeting the nisab threshold, and—in the case of crops—cultivating staple crops that are durable for long-term storage and are the result of human cultivation rather than wild growth. The wealth subject to zakat must be fully owned by the individual, allowing for its complete utilization. Such wealth is acquired through means sanctioned by Islam—such as business activities, grants from the state or others, inheritance, or other legitimate methods. Zakat al-mal refers to the obligatory zakat paid by a Muslim on wealth derived from trade or business activities, provided the wealth reaches the nisab (minimum threshold) and has been held for a full year (haul).

"Exceeding basic needs" means the wealth owned surpasses the minimum requirements for the survival and primary needs of the individual and their dependents.

Meeting the nisab requirement means the wealth has reached the minimum threshold at which zakat becomes payable. To qualify for nisab, the wealth must be in excess of essential needs—such as clothing, food, housing, transportation, and tools used for trade or earning a livelihood. Furthermore, the wealth must have been held for a full year (haul), calculated from the day the nisab threshold was reached. A specific exception applies to agricultural produce, where zakat is paid at the time of harvest rather than waiting for a full year to pass.

How to Calculate Zakat al-Mal

Zakat is categorized into zakat al-fitr and zakat al-mal (wealth-based zakat). Zakat al-mal is further subdivided into categories such as gold and silver, and income.

Zakat al-Mal

In addition to gold and silver, livestock also falls under the category of mal (wealth); the zakat for livestock is also based on the haul (one-year holding period). Consequently, if the wealth falls below the nisab threshold at any point during the year, the haul count is interrupted. If the wealth subsequently reaches the nisab level again, the calculation restarts from the moment the threshold is met.

For example, suppose your wealth reached the nisab threshold in January. If, in May, your wealth dropped below the required nisab level, the previous calculation is voided. If, in June, your wealth increased to reach the nisab level again, a new calculation period would begin from that month. And so on until one perfect year is reached, then the zakat that needs to be paid is calculated.

There are those who argue that in calculating zakat mal, all items (gold, silver, money and other items) are combined in their entirety. The nishab for gold is 20 Islamic Dinars, while the nishab for silver is 200 Dirhams. The Dinar is a 22 carat gold coin or 4.25 grams, while the Dirham is a pure silver coin weighing 2.975 grams. These two coins are a legal medium of exchange according to Islamic law and the Sunnah of the Prophet. The current value of 1 Dinar is around IDR 2.3 million, while 1 Dirham is equivalent to IDR 65 thousand.

Zakat on Agricultural Products

"Eat from its fruit (of various kinds) when it bears fruit, and fulfill your right on the day of reaping the fruit (by paying zakat); and do not be excessive. Indeed, Allah does not like those who are excessive." (Al-An'am: 141).
With regard to agricultural zakat, there are differences between schools:

1. According to Imam Abu Hanifah, everything that grows on earth, except wood, grass and plants that do not bear fruit, must be given zakat.

2. According to Imam Malik, all long-lasting plants that are cultivated by humans must be given zakat, except for fruits containing seeds, guavas, pears, etc.

3. According to Imam Syafi'i, every food plant that is strong, long-lasting and cultivated by humans must be given zakati.

4. According to Imam Ahmad bin Hambal, grains, fruit and grass planted by Wajid are given zakati, as are other plants that have the same properties as tamar, dates, tien fruit and noni. For other agricultural products, for example cloves, zakat is required when traded, which has the same provisions as zakat tijarah (trade), not zakat zira'ah (crop products).

In various books, the nishab for rice is 5 (five) wasak, while the nishab for merchandise is the same as the nishab for pure gold (24 carat), namely 20 dinars. Based on measurements that have been converted into the measurements we usually use, the nishab for rice is around 1,323 kg with zakat of 5% or 1/20 for each harvest, which is approximately 66 kg for every 1,323 kg.

There are still other provisions for calculating this mall zakat. If agricultural products are obtained by irrigation or using sprinklers then the zakat is 1/20 (5%), but if agricultural products are obtained by using rainwater then the zakat is 1/10 (10%). If farmers have gardens in different locations and use different irrigation systems, then the zakat value for each plantation or farm will also be different.

Regarding the attainment of the nishab (minimum taxable threshold), harvests of the same type of agricultural or plantation produce within a single year are, according to some scholars, calculated cumulatively. Differences in location or timing within that year do not prevent the nishab from being reached.

Zakat on agricultural produce is paid at the time of each harvest; one need not wait for a full year to elapse. However, for the purpose of meeting the nishab requirement, harvests within a year are aggregated to reach the threshold value (specifically, 653 kg of rice or 5 wasaq). Some scholars hold the view that yields from a single season for the same type of crop are calculated cumulatively—rather than separately—to satisfy the nishab requirement; this does not, however, mean that the actual payment of zakat must be deferred for a year.

Upon closer examination, it appears that zakat is calculated based on "gross yield"—meaning costs incurred for seeds, fertilizer, and the like are not deducted. Nevertheless, many scholars argue that agricultural zakat is paid after deducting debts if the farmer had to borrow money to finance the farming operation. Naturally, a condition for this is that the farmer possesses no surplus cash or other assets that could be used to settle the debt. If the farmer holds assets exceeding basic needs—even in the form of property—then the debt does not serve to reduce the zakat obligation.

The majority of scholars agree that the nishab for agricultural zakat is 5 wasaq, although some scholars argue that no nishab requirement applies. What is the value of "5 wasaq"? Opinions vary, but the most widely accepted view—held by Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi—is that 5 wasaq is approximately equivalent to 653 kg.

Agricultural Zakat in Islam is categorized according to the type of produce, as follows:

Zakat on rice

Zakat is mandatory on rice harvests once the nishab (minimum threshold) of 5 wasaq (653 kg) is reached. By current standards, if the price of unhusked rice is Rp 5,000 per kg, the value amounts to Rp 3,265,000. This is considered a low threshold. If the average rice yield is 6 tons per hectare, then a farmer owning approximately 0.1 hectares would already be obligated to pay zakat.

However, according to KH Ma’shum Ali Jombang in the book Fath Al-Qadir (https://islam.nu.or.id/....), the nisab (minimum threshold) for unhusked rice is just over 1.6 tons, equivalent to 816 kg of milled rice. Based on average yields, this means an area of ​​0.26 hectares would trigger the zakat obligation. Which view is correct? God knows best.

There are three categories of zakat on rice farming: (1) If irrigation comes from natural sources (rain or springs), the zakat rate is 10%; (2) For harvests where irrigation relies partly on rain or springs and partly on paid methods, the zakat rate is 7.5%; and (3) For harvests where irrigation relies on human or animal labor, the zakat rate is 5%.

Zakat on leased rice fields

If a rice field is leased out to another party and the owner does not receive the actual crop yield, the zakat is not paid in the form of the harvest itself. Instead, zakat applies to the rental income, provided the money has reached the nisab threshold and has been held for a full year (haul). The benchmark for this value is the equivalent of 85 grams of gold or 595 grams of silver.
However, if the rice field is rented from someone else, the rental cost is deducted from the total yield before calculating zakat; only the remaining amount is subject to the obligation. The payment amount depends on the irrigation source and whether the yield has reached the nisab (minimum threshold).

Zakat on vegetables and fruits

Vegetable and fruit harvests are not subject to zakat because they do not meet the necessary criteria. Agricultural produce subject to zakat consists of staple foods such as rice (Indonesia), wheat (Middle East), dates (Middle East), corn, and other staples. Vegetables are exempt because they cannot be stored for long periods; the same applies to fruits.

Zakat on livestock

The zakat on livestock is essentially the same as that for other agricultural products, with one additional condition: the animals must graze on open pastures more often than they are fed fodder gathered by the owner. In other words, the cattle rely more on communal resources (pasture) than on the farmer's effort to forage for grass.

The nisab for camels starts at 5 animals, while for cattle, the minimum is 30 animals.

Tabi’ or tabi’ah refers to male and female cattle that are one year old, while musinnah refers to a female cow that is two years old.

The nisab for goats is 40 animals. The zakat calculation for goats is: 1 goat for every 40 goats; 2 for 120 goats; 3 for more than 200 up to 300 goats; and thereafter, 1 goat for every multiple of 100 above 300 goats.

Zakat on fisheries

Fisheries take at least two forms: aquaculture (in ponds, enclosures, etc.) and wild capture (fishing freely in the open sea). Zakat on aquaculture yields is calculated based on the year's business earnings—similar to zakat on commerce—once the haul (one-year holding period) is met and the nisab threshold is reached. The nisab (minimum threshold) applies when the business volume reaches the equivalent of 20 dinars (1 dinar = 4.25 grams of pure gold) or 85 grams of gold. If the price of gold as of April 2020 is Rp 900,000 per gram, the nisab stands at Rp 76.5 million. Zakat is calculated based on net income—that is, income remaining after deducting costs for production inputs, rent, labor, and other expenses. If the net income is Rp 30 million, the zakat amount is 2.5% × Rp 30 million = Rp 750,000.

Some argue that the zakat rate for fish/shrimp ponds should be 10% by drawing an analogy (qiyas) with agriculture, based on the criterion that the produce is a staple food that provides satiety. Alternatively, it could be equated to the zakat on trade, which is 2.5%. However, the prevailing view equates it with the zakat on crops, given the significant similarities regarding seeding, maintenance, and harvesting. In this case, the nisab corresponds to the crop threshold of five wasaq (1,500 kg or 15 quintals), based on the hadith: "There is no zakat on grains or dates until they reach five wasaq," and the Quranic verse: "And give its due [zakat] on the day of its harvest" (Al-An’am: 14). The zakat payable is 5% of the total harvest (gross yield). This relates to the hadith narrated by Al-Bukhari, Ahmad, and the authors of the Sunan collections from Ibn Umar: "Crops watered by rainfall or natural springs, or those irrigated by canals, are subject to a zakat of one-tenth (10%), whereas crops watered through artificial irrigation systems are subject to a zakat of one-twentieth (5%)."

Given that fish farming entails significant costs for breeding and maintenance, it is equated to crops requiring artificial irrigation (involving cost); thus, the zakat rate is 5% rather than 10%. And Allah knows best.

Regarding marine fisheries, some scholars hold the view that no zakat is obligatory on the catch extracted from the sea. However, the opinion of Imam Ahmad—who classifies fisheries as subject to zakat—is a prudent approach. Similarly, the Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI) states that zakat for fish entrepreneurs is analogous to zakat on trade; provided there is capital investment, the value reaches the nisab (threshold) of 85 grams of gold, and the hawl (one-year holding period) is met, the entrepreneur is obligated to pay zakat at a rate of 2.5%.

Marine fishing is a business capable of generating substantial returns. A single voyage with a large vessel can yield hundreds of millions of rupiah, potentially resulting in billions annually. The zakat on marine fishing businesses is 2.5%, equating it to zakat on trade.

Zakat on Trade

Zakat on trade is the zakat levied on commercial assets—assets bought and sold with the intention of generating profit. There are differing opinions regarding the nisab (minimum threshold) for trade goods; those who mandate it set the nisab for trade goods equal to that of gold.

The value of trade assets subject to zakat is calculated by taking the business's current assets and deducting short-term liabilities (debts maturing within one year). If the difference between current assets and liabilities reaches the nisab threshold, zakat must be paid at a rate of 2.5%.

The setting of a relatively high nisab for trade zakat—compared to that for agricultural produce—is rooted in historical facts. First, the level of hardship faced by merchants in the era of the Prophet was far greater than that of farmers. Merchants of that time had to travel hundreds of kilometers, sometimes even crossing into other countries, spending months or years peddling their wares.

Second, the risks borne by merchants were higher than those faced by farmers. While a farmer might only risk losing their capital, a merchant faced greater perils; they could go bankrupt due to price fluctuations in their goods, not to mention the risks to their personal safety and the security of their merchandise during travel.

Third, agricultural commodities usually consist of basic necessities, meaning their prices remain relatively stable and demand is guaranteed. The same cannot be said for general trade.

However, the socioeconomic standing of farmers also warrants consideration in relation to other professions, particularly regarding the value of their output. Who is entitled to receive Zakat

The distribution of zakat is regulated in the Qur'an, surah at-Taubah verse 60: "Indeed, zakat is only for the needy, the poor, zakat administrators, converts who are persuaded, for (freeing) slaves, people who are in debt, for the path of Allah and for those who are on a journey, as a decree required by Allah, and Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise." So, there are eight groups who are entitled to receive zakat mal, namely:

1.     Poor, people who have almost nothing and are unable to meet their living needs.

2.     Poor, people who have assets, but not enough to meet their daily living needs.

3.     Amil, the person in charge of collecting zakat (zakat administrator).

4.     Mu'allaf, a person who has just converted to Islam and needs help to adjust to his new situation.

5.     Slaves, slaves who want to liberate themselves.

6.     Gharimin, people who owe money for halal purposes and are unable to pay it.

7.     Fisabilillah, people who fight in the way of Allah, for example jihad and fighting to defend the Islamic religion.

8.     Ibnus Sabil, a person who runs out of money in the middle of a journey (traveler).

That's about it. Wallahu a'lam. *****

 

Methods of Acquiring Land Ownership in Islam

According to Abdurrahman Al-Maliki in his book As-Siyasah al-Iqtishadiyah al-Mustla, land can be acquired through six methods: sale and purchase, inheritance, gifting (hibah), ihya’ al-mawat (reviving dead/uncultivated land), tahjir (marking boundaries on dead land), and iqta’ (state grants to citizens).

A person who revives abandoned land (ihya’ al-mawat) gains the right to possess it, based on the hadith: "Whoever revives dead land, it becomes his." (Narrated by Bukhari). The same applies to tahjir: "Whoever marks a boundary on [dead] land, it becomes his." (Narrated by Ahmad). In our society—regardless of how the practice originated—families who first cleared the land (often the earliest arrivals in a region) are held in very high esteem and respected as village elders, a status that extends to their descendants. Here, we see an alignment between local wisdom and Islamic values.

Loss of Agricultural Land Ownership Rights

Islamic Sharia stipulates that ownership rights to agricultural land are forfeited if the land is left abandoned for three consecutive years. The state will reclaim the land and grant it to another person capable of cultivating it. Umar bin Khattab stated: "A person who marks a boundary on land (muhtajir) no longer has a right to that land after it has been abandoned for three years." Umar implemented this ruling by reclaiming agricultural land belonging to Bilal bin Al-Harith Al-Muzni after it had been left uncultivated for three years. The Companions of the Prophet concurred with this action, establishing it as a consensus of the Companions (Ijma’ Sahabat). This revocation of ownership rights is not limited to mawat (dead/uncultivated) land acquired through tahjir (marking boundaries); it also extends to agricultural land acquired through purchase, inheritance, gifting, and other means. This is because the legal basis ('illah or ratio legis) for revoking ownership is not the method of acquisition, but rather the abandonment of the land for three years (ta'thil al-ardh).

(As a brief aside, the Indonesian government struggles to manage abandoned lands, despite the existence of Government Regulation No. 11 of 2010. Yet, such land often remains uncultivated for decades; HGU [Right to Cultivate] holders merely harvest the timber and then hoard the land indefinitely without clear purpose. That is hardly in the spirit of Islam.)

The intent behind this Islamic regulation is to ensure the optimal utilization of land (at-tasharruf fi al-ardh), given that land is a highly valuable resource; it must be productive. To this end, the state may assist by providing agricultural production facilities—a practice implemented by Caliph Umar bin Khattab for farmers. However, if a landowner is unable to cultivate the land, it is recommended that they transfer it to another person without compensation. Consistent with this principle, agricultural land—whether classified as kharajiyah or ushriyah—may not be leased out. The Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said: "Whoever possesses [agricultural] land should cultivate it or give it to his brother; if he refuses [to give it], then he should retain the land himself" (Narrated by Bukhari). This aligns with the view held by global academics that the treatment of land as a commodity (commodification) has been a source of recurring crises in the global economy.

Nevertheless, leasing agricultural land under a profit-sharing arrangement (muzara'ah) is permissible. Rasulullah SAW has made peace with the residents of Khaibar with a profit sharing system, namely half the results for Rasulullah SAW and half the results for the residents of Khaibar. The muamalah that the Prophet SAW carried out was sharing the profits from caring for existing trees, which is called musaqat, not sharing the profits from empty land which was then newly planted (muzara'ah).

Hima (state land) as common land

Islam also recognizes state ownership of land (hima) for the sake of the common good. Hima refers to land or territory specifically designated by the state for particular purposes, such as mining areas. Land containing mineral resources (oil, gold, silver, copper, etc.) remains private property if the yield is small, but becomes state (public) property if the yield is substantial.

Furthermore, the Messenger of Allah designated hima in specific locations—such as Naqi` (a pasture in Medina) reserved for grazing horses belonging to the Muslim community, and Rabdzah (a pasture reserved for grazing camels collected as zakat).

Beyond land-based areas, there is also the concept of "hariem," referring to zones that must be preserved and protected, specifically in the context of water bodies. The hariem of a water source can encompass river basins, lakes, wetlands, and excavated wells (or natural springs). A Hadith states: "The hariem of a well extends to the length of its draw-rope." This Hadith teaches us not to pollute water and to avoid placing waste sources near water sources. And Allah knows best. 

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The Roots of Islamic Agriculture: Land and Water

The following section begins with the primary resources of agriculture: land and water. Land is the determining factor in whether a person is classified as an owner-farmer, a sharecropper, or a farm laborer. Issues regarding land and water conditions evolved into matters concerning leasing, profit-sharing, sales, and zakat (obligatory almsgiving), thereby shaping an agrarian culture. Given the critical importance of these matters, Islam regulates them strictly. Land is not a trivial matter; the progress or regression, prosperity or misery, and stability or chaos of this world stem, to a significant extent, from the land policies we implement. Let us examine whether our current practices regarding land and water align with Islamic principles.

Islamic land law concerns the ownership (milkiyah), management (tasharruf), and distribution (tauzi') of land. In the study of Islamic jurisprudence, land law is known as Ahkam Al-Aradhi. Generally, fuqaha (Islamic jurists) discuss land law within the context of state management of assets (al-amwal). Some also link it to Islamic constitutional law. Indeed, to understand agrarian dynamics at the micro level, one must first grasp the macro-level politics involved.

The Philosophy of Land Ownership and the Urgency of Managing Agrarian Resources Based on the Law of Allah SWT

From an Islamic perspective, everything in the heavens and on earth—including land—fundamentally belongs solely to Allah SWT. "And to Allah belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth, and to Allah is the return [of all creatures]" (An-Nuur: 42). "His is the dominion of the heavens and the earth; He gives life and causes death, and He has power over all things" (Al-Hadid: 2).

What, then, is the position of human beings? Allah SWT has granted humans the authority to manage it; this implies that humans are merely "borrowing" it. Therefore, one must manage these assets—including land—in accordance with the laws of the true Owner, Allah. One of Allah’s Beautiful Names (Asmaul Husna) is Al-Baasith, meaning "The Expander" or "The One Who Bestows Abundance." Indeed, Allah’s laws regarding land are fundamentally intended to provide ease and abundance for humanity, not to burden them.

Allah SWT states: "And spend out of that in which He has made you trustees" (Al-Hadid: 7). According to Imam Al-Qurtubi, this verse serves as evidence that the ultimate source of ownership (ashlul milki) belongs to Allah SWT, and that humans possess no right other than to utilize or manage it (tasharruf) in a manner pleasing to Allah SWT. Thus, let us henceforth apply Allah’s laws in the management of land. We need to reformulate all ideas and concepts regarding agrarian matters. Regarding this law, Allah has clearly decreed: "And He shares not His legislation with anyone" (Al-Kahfi: 26).

Land Ownership and Its Implications under Islamic Law

In Islamic Sharia, ownership (milkiyah) is defined as a right established by Allah (SWT) for humans to utilize a specific object (idznu asy-Syari' bi al-intifa' bil-'ain). An individual's right of ownership arises from Allah's legal ruling regarding that object. Regarding land, two aspects must be distinguished: ownership of the land's substance (raqabah al-ardh) and ownership of the right to utilize the land (manfaah al-ardh).

Islamic Sharia recognizes two categories of land: (1) Usyriah land (al-ardhu al-'usyriyah) and (2) Kharajiyah land (al-ardhu al-kharajiyah). Historically, Usyriah land refers to land whose inhabitants embraced Islam peacefully—without warfare—such as Medina, or "dead land" (mawat) that has been reclaimed and cultivated by an individual. Consequently, Usyriah land belongs to the individual in terms of both its substance and its utility. The owner may sell, mortgage, gift, or bequeath the land, among other actions. If the land is agricultural, it is subject to the ushr obligation (agricultural zakat): 10 percent for rain-fed land and 5 percent for irrigated land. "On land watered by rivers and rain, the zakat is one-tenth; on land watered by camels [using irrigation mechanisms], the zakat is half of one-tenth" (Hadith narrated by Ahmad, Muslim, and Abu Dawud). If such land is traded as a commodity, it becomes subject to zakat on trade.

The second type is Kharajiyah land, which refers to land brought under Muslim control through warfare—such as the lands of Iraq, the Levant (Sham), and Egypt (excluding the Arabian Peninsula)—or land acquired through a peace treaty (al-sulh), such as the lands of Bahrain and Khorasan. Regarding this type of land, its underlying substance (raqabah) belongs to the entire Muslim community; the state manages it—acting through the Baitul Mal—on behalf of the Muslims. Indeed, while the state owns the substance of kharaj land, individuals hold the right to its use. Such land may be bought, sold, gifted, or inherited; however, it cannot be designated as waqf (religious endowment) because the state retains ownership of the land itself.

If kharaj land is agricultural, it is subject to the kharaj obligation (land tax), which the state collects annually based on the land's condition; the tax must be paid regardless of whether the land is cultivated or left fallow. If the kharaj land is not agricultural, it is exempt from both kharaj and zakat (obligatory almsgiving) on ​​the land itself, though it becomes subject to zakat on trade if the land is bought and sold. ******

Differences Between Western and Islamic Animal Slaughter

The tradition of slaughtering sacrificial animals in Islamic civilization has its own distinct practices. For instance, slaughtering while the animal is standing is not permitted; the animal's eyes must be covered, and it must be kept out of the sight of other sacrificial animals.

A saying of the Messenger (narrated by Abu Ya’la Shaddad bin Aws) states: "Indeed, Allah has prescribed excellence (*ihsan*) in all things... If you slaughter, do so well; sharpen your knife and put the animal at ease." (Narrated by Muslim)

Slaughtering is performed while the animal is conscious. Prof. Dr. Schultz and Dr. Hazim from the University of Hannover, Germany, once compared Islamic and Western slaughter methods. Their research concluded that the Islamic method is excellent, as slaughtering a conscious animal results in rapid blood flow and normal heart function, ensuring the complete drainage of blood from the body. If an animal is stunned first, its blood does not flow normally and its heart does not function properly, preventing the blood from being fully drained from the body. Consequently, clotted blood remains in the blood vessels, rendering the meat unhygienic. Thus, slaughtering via the stunning method yields no benefit. The "stunning" method involves rendering the animal unconscious prior to slaughter; the objective is to induce a brief state of unconsciousness so that the animal does not experience stress during the slaughtering process.

Comparison of Islamic and Western Slaughter Methods

Aspect	Islamic Slaughter (Dhabihah)	Common Western Slaughter Practices
Religious Basis	Conducted according to Islamic law (Shariah).	Primarily regulated by animal welfare, food safety, and industry standards.
Animal Condition Before Slaughter	Animal is generally slaughtered while conscious and alive.	Animals are often stunned before slaughter to induce unconsciousness.
Animal Welfare Measures	Animal should be calm, handled gently, and kept away from the sight of other animals being slaughtered.	Welfare measures focus on reducing stress and pain, often through stunning technologies.
Slaughter Procedure	A swift cut is made to the throat, severing major blood vessels while invoking the name of Allah.	Stunning is typically followed by slaughter and bleeding procedures.
Blood Drainage	Emphasis is placed on complete blood drainage from the body.	Blood is also drained, although the process occurs after stunning in many systems.
Purpose of Stunning	Generally not practiced in traditional Islamic slaughter.	Intended to render the animal unconscious and reduce perception of pain before slaughter.
Ethical Principle	Guided by the concept of ihsan (compassion, kindness, and excellence).	Guided by animal welfare regulations and humane slaughter standards.

 

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Islam Obliges Farmers to Uphold Animal Welfare

 

In general, there are similarities between how Islam regulates proper conduct toward animals and livestock and the concept of animal welfare that has developed globally over time.

Raising livestock is no trivial task. One *hadith* recounts how rainfall occurs because of animals. In a *hadith* narrated by Ibn Majah, the Messenger said: "When people refuse to pay *zakat* (alms), rainwater is withheld from the sky. Were it not for the livestock, rain would never fall."

Then, there is a *hadith* narrated by Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him): "It is not permissible for a man who has purchased a pregnant goat or camel to accompany me [to battle] until he awaits the birth of its offspring." Such is the profound regard for livestock etiquette. So, folks, even a pregnant goat can delay someone from becoming a *mujahid* (warrior for the faith). Remarkable!

Animal husbandry is one of the earliest forms of worship in the world. One of the first lessons on worship that Prophet Adam taught his children involved offering a sacrifice. To do so, he had to strive to provide the best possible offering. Cain (Qabil) chose to work as a farmer, while Abel (Habil) became a livestock herder. Ultimately, because Abel’s offering was deemed superior, it was accepted, and he was united in marriage with Iqlima—the woman they had both sought to marry. Abel’s offering was accepted because he presented the fattest, finest, and strongest sheep; the same could not be said for Cain.

Thus, paying attention to animal welfare is of great importance. In the academic world, among experts and conscientious individuals, the concepts and movements known as "Good Animal Practice" or "Animal Welfare" have emerged. There are three crucial aspects of animal welfare: welfare science, ethics, and law. Welfare science measures the effects on animals in various situations and environments from the animals' own perspective. Welfare ethics addresses how humans *ought* to treat animals, whereas welfare law concerns how humans *must* treat animals. Animal welfare is an effort to provide suitable environmental conditions for animals, thereby improving their psychological and physiological states. It reflects a human commitment to enhancing the quality of life for animals that have historically been confined in cages or tethered, unable to move freely. Animal welfare refers to the well-being of animals. Respect for animal welfare is often based on the belief that non-human animals are sentient and that consideration should be given to their well-being or suffering, especially when they are under human care. This concept emerged from the concept of animal rights—the fundamental rights of animals to a decent life free from human interference. Animals have the right to protection and humane treatment by humans regarding their care, housing, transport, utilization, slaughter methods, and euthanasia. This aligns with Islamic guidelines; a Hadith narrated by Anas bin Malik (RA) states that the Prophet (PBUH) forbade the confinement of livestock (without a reason justified by religion).

The world's first animal welfare organization, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA), was established 200 years ago, in 1824. In 1840, Queen Victoria granted her royal patronage, transforming the SPCA into the RSPCA (Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals). Various animal welfare organizations have campaigned for the adoption of a Universal Declaration of Animal Welfare (UDAW) at the United Nations. In principle, this Universal Declaration aims to raise global awareness that animals, as living beings, also experience pain and suffering. Fundamentally, animal welfare is recognized as a crucial issue within the context of social development for nations worldwide. “Treating animals humanely is a reflection of a civilized society!”

One of the animal welfare concepts widely adopted by animal lovers is that of the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA). The WSPA’s animal welfare framework is known as the “Five Freedoms”: freedom from hunger and thirst; freedom from heat and discomfort; freedom from injury and disease; freedom from fear and distress; and freedom to express normal, natural behavior.

The Indonesian government has actually made significant progress in this area. Law No. 6 of 1967 concerning Basic Provisions on Animal Husbandry and Animal Health addresses animal welfare in Article 22; this covers housing and enclosures, rearing and care, transportation, usage and utilization, methods of slaughter and killing, as well as humane treatment and protection by humans.

Subsequently, Law No. 18 of 2009 concerning Animal Husbandry and Animal Health was enacted. Article 1 defines animal welfare as "all matters relating to the physical and mental state of animals—measured against natural behavioral standards—that must be implemented and enforced to protect animals from improper treatment by humans utilizing them."

Article 66 outlines measures to be taken for the sake of animal welfare, covering capture and handling; housing and enclosures; rearing and care; transportation; slaughter and killing; and humane treatment and protection. Specific provisions include humane practices—such as capturing and handling wildlife in accordance with conservation laws—and ensuring housing and enclosures allow animals to express their natural behaviors. Furthermore, rearing, safeguarding, care, and protection must be carried out to ensure animals are free from hunger and thirst, pain, abuse and misuse, as well as fear and distress.

Animal transportation must be conducted properly to ensure animals remain free from fear, distress, and abuse. Similarly, slaughter and killing must be performed in a manner that ensures animals are free from pain, fear, distress, abuse, and misuse. Article 302 of the Criminal Code (KUHP) prescribes a prison sentence for anyone who, without a legitimate reason or by exceeding reasonable limits, intentionally harms or injures an animal or impairs its health—including by deliberately withholding food.

An "Animal Needs Index" (ANI) has even been developed; this method was devised by Austrian scientists in 1999. Key elements of the ANI include freedom of movement, social contact, flooring quality, housing quality, and the quality of human care provided to the animals.

The "battery cage" model is rejected because it is inhumane. Battery cages are small enclosures that prevent livestock from moving; the animals remain huddled in place all day, with the aim of converting all their feed into meat. This clearly contradicts animal welfare principles. The proper approach is free-range farming, which provides access to the outdoors—mimicking the natural living conditions animals experienced before human intervention.

Animal emotions have long been a subject of expert study. Professors Ian Duncan and Marian Dawkins have focused particularly on the animals' feelings. This approach reflects the conviction that animals should be regarded as sentient beings. Duncan wrote: "Animal welfare is concerned with the feelings experienced by the animal. Animals have their own subjective feelings."

The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) is an intergovernmental body responsible for improving animal health worldwide. The OIE promotes animal welfare and the safety of animal-derived food products. Animal welfare refers to how an animal copes with the conditions in which it lives. An animal is considered to be in a state of good welfare if—as demonstrated by scientific evidence—it is healthy, comfortable, well-nourished, safe, able to express innate behaviors, and free from unpleasant states such as pain, fear, and distress.

These five freedoms are interconnected; if one is not met or is compromised, it affects the others. This leads to mental suffering and pain, impacting the animal's physical and psychological condition.

The final factor is freedom from fear and distress, which entails providing conditions and treatment that prevent mental suffering. Prolonged poor welfare conditions trigger disease—a tangible manifestation of compromised animal welfare—resulting in chronic suffering for the animal.

Physiologically, changes in animal welfare activate the central nervous system (CNS) and elicit responses from both the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system. Autonomic nervous system responses affect the Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary (SAM) system and the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS). SAM system activation leads to increased cardiac output (tachycardia, cardiac muscle contraction), increased blood flow to muscles (peripheral vasoconstriction, splenic contraction), and increased respiratory activity (increased respiratory rate, bronchiolar relaxation). Conversely, the PNS response results in decreased cardiac output (bradycardia).

In general, changes in animal welfare status lead to stress, manifesting as increased adrenocortical activity, reduced reproductive hormonal activity, decreased performance, chronic hypertension, increased disease susceptibility, gastric ulcers, delayed wound healing, cardiovascular pathologies, immunosuppression, and even death.

Neglecting the welfare of livestock and animals destined for slaughter causes fear, distress, and pain. Such conditions can arise during slaughter, transport, and marketing due to limitations in forming social groups and inadequate feed and water supplies. Pre-slaughter stress negatively impacts carcass quality, resulting in the condition known as Dark, Firm, and Dry (DFD) meat. Dark, Firm, and Dry (DFD) meat occurs as a result of pre-slaughter stress, which depletes muscle glycogen reserves. This condition leads to reduced lactic acid levels in the muscles and raises the meat's pH above normal levels. Under these conditions, the post-mortem process is compromised, resulting in meat that appears darker, firmer, and drier; generally, such meat is tougher and less palatable. High meat pH makes the meat more susceptible to bacterial growth. DFD beef serves as an indicator of stress, injury, disease, or fatigue in the animal prior to slaughter.

Good Animal Practice (GAP)

Livestock production must prioritize animal well-being—ensuring freedom from hunger, poor housing conditions, pain, disease, and handling-related stress. Practices include avoiding mutilation and invasive procedures, minimizing the use of antibiotics and hormones, and reducing livestock transport, among others. Livestock must be respected and treated with kindness, courtesy, and dignity.

GAP addresses public health by ensuring quality—including through the use of medicinal plants. European supermarkets, for instance, implement standards developed by bodies that establish codes of practice. These standards respond to consumer demands regarding agricultural production methods and their impact on health and the environment. Codes of practice cover food quality (ensuring health safety at every stage), social impact (requiring positive outcomes for smallholder farmers and decent working conditions), and environmental friendliness (producing food through sustainable farming systems that do not harm the environment).

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