Differences Between Western and Islamic Animal Slaughter

The tradition of slaughtering sacrificial animals in Islamic civilization has its own distinct practices. For instance, slaughtering while the animal is standing is not permitted; the animal's eyes must be covered, and it must be kept out of the sight of other sacrificial animals.

A saying of the Messenger (narrated by Abu Ya’la Shaddad bin Aws) states: "Indeed, Allah has prescribed excellence (*ihsan*) in all things... If you slaughter, do so well; sharpen your knife and put the animal at ease." (Narrated by Muslim)

Slaughtering is performed while the animal is conscious. Prof. Dr. Schultz and Dr. Hazim from the University of Hannover, Germany, once compared Islamic and Western slaughter methods. Their research concluded that the Islamic method is excellent, as slaughtering a conscious animal results in rapid blood flow and normal heart function, ensuring the complete drainage of blood from the body. If an animal is stunned first, its blood does not flow normally and its heart does not function properly, preventing the blood from being fully drained from the body. Consequently, clotted blood remains in the blood vessels, rendering the meat unhygienic. Thus, slaughtering via the stunning method yields no benefit. The "stunning" method involves rendering the animal unconscious prior to slaughter; the objective is to induce a brief state of unconsciousness so that the animal does not experience stress during the slaughtering process.

Comparison of Islamic and Western Slaughter Methods

Aspect	Islamic Slaughter (Dhabihah)	Common Western Slaughter Practices
Religious Basis	Conducted according to Islamic law (Shariah).	Primarily regulated by animal welfare, food safety, and industry standards.
Animal Condition Before Slaughter	Animal is generally slaughtered while conscious and alive.	Animals are often stunned before slaughter to induce unconsciousness.
Animal Welfare Measures	Animal should be calm, handled gently, and kept away from the sight of other animals being slaughtered.	Welfare measures focus on reducing stress and pain, often through stunning technologies.
Slaughter Procedure	A swift cut is made to the throat, severing major blood vessels while invoking the name of Allah.	Stunning is typically followed by slaughter and bleeding procedures.
Blood Drainage	Emphasis is placed on complete blood drainage from the body.	Blood is also drained, although the process occurs after stunning in many systems.
Purpose of Stunning	Generally not practiced in traditional Islamic slaughter.	Intended to render the animal unconscious and reduce perception of pain before slaughter.
Ethical Principle	Guided by the concept of ihsan (compassion, kindness, and excellence).	Guided by animal welfare regulations and humane slaughter standards.

 

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Islam Obliges Farmers to Uphold Animal Welfare

 

In general, there are similarities between how Islam regulates proper conduct toward animals and livestock and the concept of animal welfare that has developed globally over time.

Raising livestock is no trivial task. One *hadith* recounts how rainfall occurs because of animals. In a *hadith* narrated by Ibn Majah, the Messenger said: "When people refuse to pay *zakat* (alms), rainwater is withheld from the sky. Were it not for the livestock, rain would never fall."

Then, there is a *hadith* narrated by Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him): "It is not permissible for a man who has purchased a pregnant goat or camel to accompany me [to battle] until he awaits the birth of its offspring." Such is the profound regard for livestock etiquette. So, folks, even a pregnant goat can delay someone from becoming a *mujahid* (warrior for the faith). Remarkable!

Animal husbandry is one of the earliest forms of worship in the world. One of the first lessons on worship that Prophet Adam taught his children involved offering a sacrifice. To do so, he had to strive to provide the best possible offering. Cain (Qabil) chose to work as a farmer, while Abel (Habil) became a livestock herder. Ultimately, because Abel’s offering was deemed superior, it was accepted, and he was united in marriage with Iqlima—the woman they had both sought to marry. Abel’s offering was accepted because he presented the fattest, finest, and strongest sheep; the same could not be said for Cain.

Thus, paying attention to animal welfare is of great importance. In the academic world, among experts and conscientious individuals, the concepts and movements known as "Good Animal Practice" or "Animal Welfare" have emerged. There are three crucial aspects of animal welfare: welfare science, ethics, and law. Welfare science measures the effects on animals in various situations and environments from the animals' own perspective. Welfare ethics addresses how humans *ought* to treat animals, whereas welfare law concerns how humans *must* treat animals. Animal welfare is an effort to provide suitable environmental conditions for animals, thereby improving their psychological and physiological states. It reflects a human commitment to enhancing the quality of life for animals that have historically been confined in cages or tethered, unable to move freely. Animal welfare refers to the well-being of animals. Respect for animal welfare is often based on the belief that non-human animals are sentient and that consideration should be given to their well-being or suffering, especially when they are under human care. This concept emerged from the concept of animal rights—the fundamental rights of animals to a decent life free from human interference. Animals have the right to protection and humane treatment by humans regarding their care, housing, transport, utilization, slaughter methods, and euthanasia. This aligns with Islamic guidelines; a Hadith narrated by Anas bin Malik (RA) states that the Prophet (PBUH) forbade the confinement of livestock (without a reason justified by religion).

The world's first animal welfare organization, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA), was established 200 years ago, in 1824. In 1840, Queen Victoria granted her royal patronage, transforming the SPCA into the RSPCA (Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals). Various animal welfare organizations have campaigned for the adoption of a Universal Declaration of Animal Welfare (UDAW) at the United Nations. In principle, this Universal Declaration aims to raise global awareness that animals, as living beings, also experience pain and suffering. Fundamentally, animal welfare is recognized as a crucial issue within the context of social development for nations worldwide. “Treating animals humanely is a reflection of a civilized society!”

One of the animal welfare concepts widely adopted by animal lovers is that of the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA). The WSPA’s animal welfare framework is known as the “Five Freedoms”: freedom from hunger and thirst; freedom from heat and discomfort; freedom from injury and disease; freedom from fear and distress; and freedom to express normal, natural behavior.

The Indonesian government has actually made significant progress in this area. Law No. 6 of 1967 concerning Basic Provisions on Animal Husbandry and Animal Health addresses animal welfare in Article 22; this covers housing and enclosures, rearing and care, transportation, usage and utilization, methods of slaughter and killing, as well as humane treatment and protection by humans.

Subsequently, Law No. 18 of 2009 concerning Animal Husbandry and Animal Health was enacted. Article 1 defines animal welfare as "all matters relating to the physical and mental state of animals—measured against natural behavioral standards—that must be implemented and enforced to protect animals from improper treatment by humans utilizing them."

Article 66 outlines measures to be taken for the sake of animal welfare, covering capture and handling; housing and enclosures; rearing and care; transportation; slaughter and killing; and humane treatment and protection. Specific provisions include humane practices—such as capturing and handling wildlife in accordance with conservation laws—and ensuring housing and enclosures allow animals to express their natural behaviors. Furthermore, rearing, safeguarding, care, and protection must be carried out to ensure animals are free from hunger and thirst, pain, abuse and misuse, as well as fear and distress.

Animal transportation must be conducted properly to ensure animals remain free from fear, distress, and abuse. Similarly, slaughter and killing must be performed in a manner that ensures animals are free from pain, fear, distress, abuse, and misuse. Article 302 of the Criminal Code (KUHP) prescribes a prison sentence for anyone who, without a legitimate reason or by exceeding reasonable limits, intentionally harms or injures an animal or impairs its health—including by deliberately withholding food.

An "Animal Needs Index" (ANI) has even been developed; this method was devised by Austrian scientists in 1999. Key elements of the ANI include freedom of movement, social contact, flooring quality, housing quality, and the quality of human care provided to the animals.

The "battery cage" model is rejected because it is inhumane. Battery cages are small enclosures that prevent livestock from moving; the animals remain huddled in place all day, with the aim of converting all their feed into meat. This clearly contradicts animal welfare principles. The proper approach is free-range farming, which provides access to the outdoors—mimicking the natural living conditions animals experienced before human intervention.

Animal emotions have long been a subject of expert study. Professors Ian Duncan and Marian Dawkins have focused particularly on the animals' feelings. This approach reflects the conviction that animals should be regarded as sentient beings. Duncan wrote: "Animal welfare is concerned with the feelings experienced by the animal. Animals have their own subjective feelings."

The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) is an intergovernmental body responsible for improving animal health worldwide. The OIE promotes animal welfare and the safety of animal-derived food products. Animal welfare refers to how an animal copes with the conditions in which it lives. An animal is considered to be in a state of good welfare if—as demonstrated by scientific evidence—it is healthy, comfortable, well-nourished, safe, able to express innate behaviors, and free from unpleasant states such as pain, fear, and distress.

These five freedoms are interconnected; if one is not met or is compromised, it affects the others. This leads to mental suffering and pain, impacting the animal's physical and psychological condition.

The final factor is freedom from fear and distress, which entails providing conditions and treatment that prevent mental suffering. Prolonged poor welfare conditions trigger disease—a tangible manifestation of compromised animal welfare—resulting in chronic suffering for the animal.

Physiologically, changes in animal welfare activate the central nervous system (CNS) and elicit responses from both the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system. Autonomic nervous system responses affect the Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary (SAM) system and the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS). SAM system activation leads to increased cardiac output (tachycardia, cardiac muscle contraction), increased blood flow to muscles (peripheral vasoconstriction, splenic contraction), and increased respiratory activity (increased respiratory rate, bronchiolar relaxation). Conversely, the PNS response results in decreased cardiac output (bradycardia).

In general, changes in animal welfare status lead to stress, manifesting as increased adrenocortical activity, reduced reproductive hormonal activity, decreased performance, chronic hypertension, increased disease susceptibility, gastric ulcers, delayed wound healing, cardiovascular pathologies, immunosuppression, and even death.

Neglecting the welfare of livestock and animals destined for slaughter causes fear, distress, and pain. Such conditions can arise during slaughter, transport, and marketing due to limitations in forming social groups and inadequate feed and water supplies. Pre-slaughter stress negatively impacts carcass quality, resulting in the condition known as Dark, Firm, and Dry (DFD) meat. Dark, Firm, and Dry (DFD) meat occurs as a result of pre-slaughter stress, which depletes muscle glycogen reserves. This condition leads to reduced lactic acid levels in the muscles and raises the meat's pH above normal levels. Under these conditions, the post-mortem process is compromised, resulting in meat that appears darker, firmer, and drier; generally, such meat is tougher and less palatable. High meat pH makes the meat more susceptible to bacterial growth. DFD beef serves as an indicator of stress, injury, disease, or fatigue in the animal prior to slaughter.

Good Animal Practice (GAP)

Livestock production must prioritize animal well-being—ensuring freedom from hunger, poor housing conditions, pain, disease, and handling-related stress. Practices include avoiding mutilation and invasive procedures, minimizing the use of antibiotics and hormones, and reducing livestock transport, among others. Livestock must be respected and treated with kindness, courtesy, and dignity.

GAP addresses public health by ensuring quality—including through the use of medicinal plants. European supermarkets, for instance, implement standards developed by bodies that establish codes of practice. These standards respond to consumer demands regarding agricultural production methods and their impact on health and the environment. Codes of practice cover food quality (ensuring health safety at every stage), social impact (requiring positive outcomes for smallholder farmers and decent working conditions), and environmental friendliness (producing food through sustainable farming systems that do not harm the environment).

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Islamic Etiquette Regarding Animals and Livestock

“Adab” refers to norms or rules of conduct and propriety rooted primarily in Islamic teachings. These norms govern interactions among people; a "civilized" or "proper" person is one who understands and observes these rules of conduct and courtesy in accordance with Islamic guidelines.

It appears that our treatment of livestock is often flawed. Many of our methods for rearing, cleaning, transporting, and slaughtering them are incorrect. We often fail to treat livestock as living beings that possess a soul and the capacity to "feel." In the pursuit of cost reduction and higher profits, we frequently act without proper regard for the welfare of these animals.

Broiler chickens are transported in small, open crates, leaving them exposed to the cold throughout the journey. They are lined up and slaughtered by machine. Ducks are slaughtered in full view of other ducks. Goats are kept in cramped spaces (the "battery" system) to restrict movement and encourage weight gain. Is all of this right? It lacks humane treatment toward animals.

In March 2018, mass media reported that Public Order Agency (Satpol PP) officers in Bulukumba received a stern reprimand from the Governor of South Sulawesi for transporting a cow by dragging it behind a vehicle. The Governor stated that the officers had violated animal welfare laws.

Indeed, animals must be treated well so that they feel comfortable and satiated, are able to express their natural behaviors, and are free from abuse, distress, and fear.

Raising Livestock is Highly Encouraged in Islam

Farming and raising livestock are endeavors that require knowledge. The Quran, too, reminds us of the practice of raising livestock. “And indeed, in livestock, there is an important lesson for you. We give you to drink from the milk within their bellies, and in them, there are many benefits for you, and from them, you eat.” (Al-Mu’minun: 21)

“Indeed, in livestock, there is truly a lesson for you. We give you to drink from the pure milk within their bellies—situated between dung and blood—which is easy for those who drink it to swallow.” (An-Nahl: 66).

The content of Surah Al-Mu’minun, verse 21, reveals to us the vital role livestock play in human life. Many primary livestock products—such as milk, meat, eggs, and honey—are animal-based foods of high nutritional value that are essential for human health. Furthermore, livestock serve as a source of daily income and a form of savings; they provide labor for plowing agricultural land, serve as a means of transport, and produce biogas and organic fertilizer; they can even be kept as beloved pets.

Thus, livestock play a significant role in ensuring the quality of human life. Additionally, livestock are utilized in religious observances—such as the *Qurban* (sacrifice) during Eid al-Adha, the payment of *Zakat* (obligatory almsgiving) on ​​livestock, and the offering of *Dam* (expiatory sacrifice) during the Hajj pilgrimage.

Many verses in the Quran touch upon the subject of livestock farming, and several Surahs are even named after livestock or related animals, such as *An-Nahl* (The Bee), *Al-An’am* (Cattle/Livestock), and *Al-Baqarah* (The Cow). Examples of Surahs that mention livestock include those referring to cattle (QS. Al-Baqarah: 67–71, 73; QS. Yusuf: 43), sheep (QS. Al-An’am: 143, 146; QS. An-Nahl: 80), goats (QS. Al-An’am: 143; An-Nahl: 78; Shad: 23–24), poultry (QS. 2: 260; 3: 49; 5: 110; 6: 38; 16: 79; 23: 41; 27: 16; 67: 19), and camels (QS. Al-An’am: 144; Al-Hajj: 27, 37; QS. Al-Ghashiyah: 17).

Recommendations for raising goats. From Umm Hani, the Prophet said: "You should take goats to look after, because these goats go out in the morning bringing goodness and in the afternoon they come home bringing goodness." (HR. Ahmad)

In the morning the goats can be milked. If it doesn't produce milk, goat dung can provide benefits to humans, including being a fertilizer for plants. Therefore, in the morning before the goats are led to the grazing area, the owner usually milks them. In the afternoon after returning from grazing, these goats usually have their tits engorged again because after grazing all day their milk is full again. These breasts full of milk benefit their owners or entrepreneurs.

The milk taken includes cows and camels. Cows and camels have other benefits for humans, including their meat is for food, their skin is used for clothing, and their fur can be used as material for making cloth. Because of its various benefits for human interests, Islam recommends and justifies humans raising cows or camels so that the milk can be used by humans and become a product that fulfills the daily needs of human life.

Regarding horses, from Sauwadah bin Rabi', the Prophet SAW said: "You (Sauwadah) should keep horses because in their heads there is blessing and their goodness will last until the Day of Resurrection." (HR. Thabarani and Dhiyauddin Al-Muqaddasi). Horses, as animals possessing advantages over others, are mentioned in several verses of the Qur’an, including Ali Imran: 14, Al-Anfal: 60, An-Nahl: 8, and Al-Hashr: 6. The functions of horses cited in these verses include serving as mounts for charging at enemies on the battlefield, transporting loads beyond human physical capacity, and acting as prized livestock. Due to their versatility, horse breeding is highly encouraged in Islam.

The same applies to birds. “And the flesh of birds [will be available], such as they desire” (Al-Waqi’ah: 21). Birds or poultry can be raised as livestock or kept for commercial farming purposes. These creatures of Allah can be bred for human benefit. Therefore, entrepreneurship in the poultry sector—particularly raising chickens—is a business venture sanctioned by Islam. (This does not, however, include keeping birds merely to listen to their “screams,” does it?)

“Indeed, for you in the livestock is a lesson. We give you to drink from that which is in their bellies, and for you therein are numerous benefits, and from them you eat” (Al-Mu’minun: 21). This verse explains that the milk found in the udders of livestock—derived from the nutrients within their bellies—serves as a wholesome drink for humans. This indicates that a livestock business producing milk for sale is a legitimate entrepreneurial endeavor open to anyone. Such a business is sanctioned by Islam because the milk of livestock is permissible for human consumption.

From an Islamic perspective, livestock and the business of raising them serve, broadly speaking, the following purposes:

1.              Livestock serve as a sign of the power of Allah SWT. "Do they not see and reflect that We have indeed created livestock for them—part of what Our own hands (power) have fashioned—and that they have dominion over them?" (Ya-Sin: 71)

2.              Livestock as a food source, providing animal protein in the form of meat, milk, and eggs. "...and in them, they find benefits and drinks; will they not then give thanks?" (Ya-Sin: 73)

3.              Livestock as a source of clothing materials; their fleece or hair is harvested for garments—for instance, the wool produced by sheep and camels. "And He created livestock for you, from which you derive warmth and other benefits, and some of which you eat." (An-Nahl: 5)

4.              Livestock as mounts or means of transport, such as cattle, horses, mules, and donkeys (Al-An'am: 142-144; An-Nahl: 7-8; and Al-Hajj: 27).

5.              Livestock as a source of (wholesome) enjoyment, as they possess beauty in their sounds and in their hides or coats. "And in them, there is beauty for you when you drive them home to rest and when you lead them out to pasture." (An-Nahl: 6)

6.              Livestock for the act of *Qurban* (ritual sacrifice). Livestock serve as a means of spiritual purification through *Qurban* as well as through *Zakat* (obligatory alms), *Infaq* (spending for God's sake), and *Sadaqah* (voluntary charity). "That they may witness the benefits provided for them and mention the name of Allah on appointed days over the livestock He has provided for them. So eat of them and feed the destitute and the poor." (Al-Hajj: 28)

However, there are threats that we must pay serious attention to. A hadith narrated by Abu Hurairah RA, from Rasulullah SAW said: "Whoever keeps a dog other than for hunting or guarding livestock and fields/gardens, then every day the reward for his practice will be reduced by two qirats"

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Organic Farming as Islamic Agriculture

 

Human activities must not cause damage to anything; likewise, farmers must not harm the natural environment. However, modern agriculture—reliant on chemical inputs—has damaged nature and harmed natural predators of pests.

In recognition of this, superior agricultural methods have emerged—methods that are, in fact, more aligned with Islamic principles. Organic farming, LEISA (Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture), and smart farming represent a shift away from the practices of the Green Revolution. Organic farming is a form of agriculture that avoids or drastically minimizes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, plant growth regulators, and stimulants. It is grounded in the principle of returning to nature. Nature functions as a unified whole comprising many parts—much like an organism and its organs. All components operate in harmony, serving and sharing with one another. Each part plays a distinct role, complementing the others and creating synergy to achieve optimal, sustainable balance. This reflects an organic nature, where the system harmoniously protects and nurtures its constituent parts.

Organic cultivation is by no means a new concept. As early as 5,000 BCE, farmers were using animal manure and plant residues to enrich the soil. Techniques such as crop rotation, intercropping, and the piling of plant residues were also practiced. The use of manure and compost was even documented in the Roman Empire between 23 and 79 CE. In Indonesia, organic farming skills have long been passed down from generation to generation. Examples include the swidden farming systems of the Dayak tribes in the interior of Kalimantan—adapted to soils containing toxic levels of aluminum—and the shifting cultivation practices of the Batak and Malay peoples, which effectively restore soil fertility. Other examples are the Javanese *Surjan* system, suitable for land with uncontrolled water conditions; intercropping systems that prevent outbreaks of pests and diseases; the "slash-and-burn" method used in Lampung and Sulawesi pepper farming to improve soil structure and consistency; seasonal forecasting systems used by the Batak, Javanese, Dayak, and Balinese to manage pest attacks; and the *Bondang* system in Silo Village, North Sumatra, which is highly effective in maintaining environmental balance.

It is worth noting that Muslim farmers and agricultural experts were pioneers in establishing the foundations of global agricultural knowledge; their contributions to world agriculture have been immense.

Prohibited Cultivation Practices

Any plant that is forbidden to consume—or whose use is prohibited except in cases of emergency—is also forbidden to cultivate; examples include *hashish* (cannabis) and similar substances. The same applies to tobacco: if one holds the view that smoking is harmful and *haram* (forbidden), then cultivating it is likewise considered *haram*.

Furthermore, Muslims are prohibited from cultivating or producing crops that are forbidden for Muslims, even if those crops are not forbidden for non-Muslims. For instance, a Muslim is not permitted to raise pigs for sale to Christians. On this same basis, Islam forbids the sale of grapes—which are inherently *halal* (permissible)—to a person known to intend to process them into alcohol.

Any form of cultivation or agricultural method that causes harm is strictly prohibited. Examples include planting short-rooted seasonal crops in water catchment areas, particularly on land with steep or rugged topography. The detrimental impact on the natural environment is evident, particularly for downstream areas, which face flooding during the rainy season and drought during the dry season. The insights and guidance of conservation experts must be heeded. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) demonstrated a deep concern for environmental preservation. He and his companions implemented conservation practices—such as establishing protected areas (*hima*) and restricted zones (*al-Harim*), as well as rehabilitating abandoned land (*Ihya al-mawat*)—while simultaneously ensuring the rights of wildlife, including both animals and plants, were respected.

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ISLAMIC ETIQUETTE IN FARMING

 

Every morning, we head to the fields, working and sweating as we till the soil, fertilize, and tend to our crops. Yet, do we ever ask ourselves: are our methods correct? Do they align with Islamic teachings? Does Islam offer guidelines on this? Indeed, it provides many comprehensive ones. This is only natural, as Islam governs every aspect of life—from the governance of a nation down to the simple act of entering a restroom. Here are several principles of farming etiquette that we ought to observe:

First, admiring the garden by saying *Masha'Allah*.

When entering a lush, green garden filled with thriving plants—a place that brings joy and happiness—make it a habit to say *Masha'Allah*. This serves as an expression of appreciation to Allah, the One who caused the plants to grow, and acts as a reminder that all achievements come to pass solely by His will. "He is Allah—the Ever-Living, the Sustainer of all existence" (Ali 'Imran: 1-2).

"Why did you not say, when you entered your garden, 'Masha'Allah, laa quwwata illaa billaah' (Indeed, all of this exists by the will of Allah; there is no power except through Allah's help)?" (Al-Kahf: 39).

Saying "mashaAllah" returns our admiration to Allah SWT, that everything we admire is realized by Allah's will, not because of our own efforts. Al-Kahf's letter provides a direct example of the etiquette of how we should enter the garden. His admiration for the beauty of the garden, the ripe fruit, the dense plants; goodness is solely the will of Allah.

Apart from that, saying mashaAllah when seeing beauty and beauty is important so that we avoid the danger of other people's eyes called "ain". An amazed look without saying mashaAllah, even if it is not accompanied by envy, can cause damage to the object. One story that occurred during the time of the Prophet, was when Amir bin Rabi'ah saw Sahl bin Hunaif praising Sahl's good physique (skin) without saying masha Allah. And suddenly Sahl fell and fainted. To treat it, Rasulullah ordered Amir to perform ablution, and the former ablution was used to wash Sahl.

If I'm not mistaken, this has also happened to green and fertile gardens, because the beauty was not immediately returned to the one who owned and created it, namely Allah SWT, Al Muhyii, the Almighty One Who Gives Life.

Two, be kind to the land by not neglecting it

The Apostle reminded how necessary it is for agricultural land to be "turned on" to produce food. The Apostle does not allow land to be abandoned, abandoned or wasted. "Whoever has land, he should work on it by farming or (if he does not try to do so) he should hand it over to his brother to cultivate it and he should not rent it out (even if) only a third, a quarter and basic food" (HR Abu Based on that hadith, it is clear that humans bear the responsibility of cultivating and developing the earth. That is the human role in the world. Two of the functions of humans as *khalifah* (stewards) on earth are cultivating the land (*al-imarah*) and preserving the earth (*ar-ri'ayah*). Humans must be able to utilize natural resources for the continuity of civilization for all beings on earth, while simultaneously protecting the earth from destruction.

Three, The Etiquette of Sowing Seeds

A seedling represents the beginning of life; a seed is the source of life. Though small, it holds immense genetic information and life-sustaining energy. As a vital link in the entire life cycle, the seed must be treated with respect.

When handling seeds, one should begin by reciting the *Basmalah* and *Shalawat* (blessings upon the Prophet), ideally while in a state of ritual purity (*wudu*). Imam Muhammad al-Baqir—a descendant of the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) and son of Ali Zainal Abidin, son of Husayn, son of Fatimah al-Zahra—taught that when one intends to farm or plant a crop, one should take a handful of seeds with one's own hands. Before sowing them, it is recommended (*sunnah*) to face the *Qibla* and recite verse 64 of Surah Al-Waqi’ah: *“A antum tazra'ụnahū am naḥnuz-zāri'ụn,”* which means: “…is it you who make it grow, or are We the Grower?”

Then, recite the following supplication:

*Allahummaj’alhu harthan mubarakan, warzuqna fihi-s-salamata wat-tamam, waj’alhu habban mutarakiban, wa la tahrimni khaira ma abtaghi, wa la taftanni bima matta’tani, bi-haqqi Muhammadin wa alihi-t-tayyibina-t-tahirin.* (O Allah, make this seed yield a harvest full of blessings; grant us safety and perfection in this cultivation. Make this seed a source of abundant success. Do not deprive me of the goodness I hope for, nor let me be ruined by the very harvest that brings joy—by the right of Muhammad and his good and pure family).

Four, Etiquette for handling pest and disease infestations.

Addressing pest and disease attacks requires both outward and inward approaches. Outwardly, we use pesticides and herbicides, but this must be accompanied by drawing closer to Allah. All creatures submit to Allah as their Creator—including insects, caterpillars, worms, grasshoppers, and even viruses and bacteria.

One recommended practice is reciting *Al-Fatihah* (the Mother of the Book). Some sources also suggest that farmers engage in *wirid* (recitations) and *dhikr* (remembrance of Allah). Fundamentally, these prayers are a plea for help from Allah—*Al-Mujib* (The One Who Answers)—so that our rice fields and gardens may be spared from various pests and protected from harsh climatic conditions.

In our community, some practice writing holy verses on a piece of paper, placing them in a bottle, and burying them in the corners of the field. *Wallahu a’lam* (Allah knows best). I do not know whether this practice is correct or incorrect.

Regarding the use of pesticides, the academic community has long advised against chemical or synthetic pesticides due to their destructive nature. While these toxins are indeed effective at quickly killing pests, they also destroy other organisms that are actually beneficial—namely, "natural enemies." In an effort to find milder alternatives, the production of "botanical pesticides"—often referred to as "organic pesticides"—has emerged. Their active ingredients are derived from plants, animals, and other organic materials. Farmers can create their own pesticides by mixing ingredients found in their immediate surroundings. These preparations are better for the environment and do not leave behind residues that are difficult to break down naturally. Furthermore, producing pesticides from materials that do not require purchasing fosters farmer self-reliance. It is time to say goodbye to commercial pesticides that degrade the soil, water, and air, and contaminate the food we consume.

Botanical pesticides align better with Islamic principles. They promote self-reliance among farmers and strengthen the national economy by eliminating the need to constantly spend foreign currency on pesticide imports. These agents do not kill pests outright; instead, they disrupt the development of eggs, larvae, and pupae; inhibit molting; interfere with insect communication; induce feeding aversion; suppress female reproduction; reduce appetite; block feeding capabilities; repel insects; and inhibit the development of disease-causing pathogens.

God willing, these pesticides are affordable and easy for farmers to produce, environmentally safe, non-phytotoxic (causing no harm to crops), unlikely to trigger pest resistance, compatible with other control methods, and yield healthy, chemical-residue-free agricultural products. Raw materials can include neem, turmeric, or ginger. Extracts from various plants can also be used to produce neem, chrysanthemum, clove, and tobacco oils. Plant materials can even be burned to harvest their ash; this method allows for the creation of insecticides from lemongrass, lantana, bamboo leaves, and other sources.

Five, treat plants gently, for they can feel.

Yes, plants can feel; they are even said to prostrate themselves. Certain verses and hadiths mention plants prostrating on the night of *Lailatul Qadar*. Trees even offer blessings (*salawat*) upon the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Prince Charles (of the UK) is reported to frequently speak to his plants.

Consequently, it is common in our society to treat plants with gentleness. Various *selamatan* (thanksgiving or blessing) rituals are held in farming. These rituals serve to offer prayers to the Creator while also communicating directly with the plants in the rice paddies and fields; prayers are often conducted right there in the fields, in the presence of the plants.

Plants essentially possess life and the fundamental characteristics of living beings. They require nourishment and the ability to adapt, breathe, grow, and reproduce. It is also said that plants can communicate with one another. Backster, an American polygraph expert, was the first to discover the phenomenon of inter-plant communication. In his research, he connected a lie detector to a plant. In his initial experiment, he threatened the plant by pretending he was about to burn one of its leaves; the device detected no change whatsoever. Driven by curiosity, Backster then proceeded to actually burn the leaf. What happened next was that the detector registered a reaction. This implied that the plant could sense whether a threat directed at it was real or merely a pretense. Ultimately, Backster concluded that plants are capable of thought.

Sauvin, a researcher specializing in plant sensitivity, developed a device connected to plants to measure the AC (alternating current) electrical potential within their energy fields. He soon discovered that plants react to joy and pleasure. Sauvin even adapted his device—using a potted Begonia—into a commercial product for lie detection. Plants possess remarkable capabilities; they are able to communicate with their surrounding environment. Therefore, let us treat our plants with care.

Sixth, treat nature gently.

In line with this recommendation, we are now familiar with what is termed "Good Agricultural Practices" (GAP). There are various definitions of GAP, and what is considered "good" depends on the standards applied; the guidelines issued by the FAO are frequently cited. GAP can vary by region, meaning it has a specific geographical context. Generally, GAP refers to a set of specific agricultural methods applied to achieve harmonious production—specifically, "any collection of specific methods, which when applied to agriculture, produces results that are in harmony with the values ​​of the proponents of those practices."

So, what distinguishes (conventional) agriculture from Good Agricultural Practices? GAP employs specific methods grounded in principles of harmony with key environmental and health values. This implies a more rigorous selection of technologies. GAP is implemented through integrated crop management, covering fertilizer use, irrigation, weed control, pest and disease management, and harvesting. It also applies various principles to production and post-production activities with the aim of producing healthy, safe food, while ensuring economic, social, and environmental sustainability.

Unlike traditional farming, which often involves excessive water use, GAP prioritizes water conservation and efficiency. Practices include minimizing water salinization, reducing the cultivation of water-intensive crops, scheduling irrigation based on actual plant needs, preventing water loss through drainage, avoiding fertilizer runoff, preserving wetland ecosystems, and providing water to plants in a natural manner. Similarly, regarding livestock, harsh treatment is prohibited, as is the use of antibiotics and hormones that disregard consumer health. GAP is implemented through sustainable agricultural methods such as Integrated Pest Management, Integrated Fertilizer Management, and conservation agriculture. There are four key principles of GAP: (1) production that is economically efficient (food security), safe (food safety), and nutritious (food quality); (2) sustainability and the enhancement of natural resources; (3) maintaining the viability of agricultural enterprises and contributing to sustainable livelihoods; and (4) aligning with the cultural and social demands of society.

GAP employs integrated crop management. Specifically regarding soil management, GAP advocates for the use of technologies that reduce erosion, the precise application of fertilizers (in terms of timing and dosage), the preservation of soil organic matter and soil structure, and the use of green manure.

GAP encompasses a broad scope within farming systems. It is implemented through sustainable agricultural methods, such as integrated pest management, integrated fertilizer management, and conservation agriculture. Sustainable agriculture serves as the guiding principle for GAP practices, with organic farming acting as a primary method. Various standards and guidelines for GAP implementation have been developed, varying by country and region. The United States implements Good Agricultural Practices—also referred to as Good Handling Practices—differently from FAO guidelines, as the U.S. approach focuses primarily on food safety. The guidelines they utilize, issued in 1998, are titled "Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables."

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Books on Agricultural Technology by Muslim Scientists of the Arab Agricultural Revolution

Islam strongly advocates for scientific knowledge. The creation and documentation of knowledge have long been established traditions within the faith. Furthermore, Islam values ​​professionalism, as reflected in the popular saying: "Entrust a matter to those qualified to handle it." Indeed, the Prophet (peace be upon him) stated: "If a matter is entrusted to those unqualified for it, then await its ruin" (Narrated by Al-Bukhari).

Consider, for instance, the story regarding the pollination of date palms. A Hadith narrated by Imam Muslim recounts: "...Initially, the Messenger forbade the practice, but the results were poor. When the matter was referred back to him, the Messenger said, 'You know better regarding your worldly affairs.'"

Indeed, Islam leaves the development of agricultural science and technology to humanity, as these fall under the realm of worldly affairs. Matters concerning agricultural science and technology are entrusted to experts—scientists, researchers, and competent individuals in the field. Naturally, these experts and researchers carry out their work for the sake of, and under the guidance of, Allah SWT.

Allah says: "Fas’alu ahladz-dzikri in kuntum la ta’lamuna," which translates to: "Ask the people of knowledge if you do not know." Thus, the Qur’an directs us to consult experts regarding specific knowledge; when we wish to produce organic fertilizer or utilize tissue culture technology, the Qur’an instructs us to seek the counsel of those with expertise.

According to one source, the Qur’an and the Sunnah do not explicitly detail cultivation methods or agricultural technologies. Instead, they offer implicit guidance: "ask the experts." It was in this spirit that the task of pollinating date palms was entrusted to the Ansar, who possessed greater expertise in the matter.

Muslim researchers and developers were accustomed to documenting their findings in books on agriculture. One wonders—could there have even been scientific journals back then? The emergence of Islamic lands as advanced agricultural regions owes much to the contributions of Muslim agricultural experts. They authored books on agriculture that served as essential references for farmers in their cultivation practices.

Riyad al-Din al-Ghazzi al-Amiri, an agricultural expert from Damascus (Syria), wrote a highly detailed book on agriculture. It covered a wide range of topics, including types of farmland, soil selection, fertilizers, seedling preparation, plant grafting, planting techniques, and irrigation systems. Beyond soil management, he also wrote about the cultivation of cereals, legumes, root crops, vegetables, flowers, and other plants.

Meanwhile, Abu’l Khair, an agricultural expert from Andalusia, authored *Kitab Al-Filaha*, a comprehensive treatise on agriculture. In this work, he described four methods for harvesting rainwater for agricultural use and outlined techniques for constructing irrigation systems. He specifically explained how rainwater could be utilized to aid the reproductive process of olive trees. Abu’l Khair also detailed the process of sugar production.

Al-Tignari, an agronomist from Andalusia, compiled a reference guide on crops capable of yielding significant agricultural profits; these included sugarcane and cotton.

Scholars also developed the fundamental principles of agricultural science (*‘ilm al-filaha*). One significant agricultural text to emerge during the Islamic Golden Age was *Kitab Al-Filaha Al-Nabatiyya* (The Nabataean Agriculture) by Ibn Wahshiyya. This book was written by the Muslim agricultural engineer in Iraq in 904 CE. Ibn Wahshiyya was motivated to write this agricultural manual by his deep love for farming; he was particularly dedicated to preserving the agricultural traditions of the Nabataeans in Mesopotamia. In her book *Islamic Gardens and Landscapes*, D. Fairchild Ruggles explains that the *Kitab al-Filaha al-Nabatiyya* contains agricultural guidelines. It provides a detailed and clear account of farming methods, irrigation techniques, plants, fertilization, cultivation, and other agricultural matters.

Moreover, this book served as a guide for the Muslim community on effective farming practices. It was translated into Arabic by Abu Bakar Ahmad and was also translated and published by Fuat Sezgin, a scholar from a German university. Other prominent works on agricultural science were published by Muslim scholars in Spain during the 11th and 12th centuries CE; these included works by Ibn al-Hassal and Ibn al-Awwam. Some of these texts were translated into Spanish and Latin, and the insights of these Muslim scholars inspired agricultural experts in the West.

Western agricultural development was guided by the writings of these Muslim scholars. During the 11th century CE, Muslim agronomists in Spain conducted research and experiments in botanical gardens in Seville and Toledo. These experimental gardens were the first of their kind, a model later emulated in the 16th century by cities in Northern Italy.

"One important aspect of this revolution was the introduction and dissemination of various new types of crops to the Islamic world" (from *Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History* by Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan and Donald R. Hill). From that time on, the Islamic world became acquainted with crops such as rice, sorghum, durum wheat, sugarcane, cotton, watermelons, and eggplants, as well as a wide variety of other plants and flowers.

Ibn al-Awwam was an expert in biology, specifically in the field of agriculture; his renowned work is Al-Falah. Meanwhile, Al-Jahiz was an expert in biology, particularly in zoology, and is best known for his work Al-Hayawan. As-Sinai was a biological expert specializing in plants and trees; his notable work is Kitab al-Nabat wa al-Shajar. *****

Technologies Created by Muslim Scientists

 

Muslim engineers were the founders of world agricultural technology. The impact of the "Islamic Green Revolution" is truly extraordinary. In the first four centuries of Islamic rule, the development of the agricultural sector in the Islamic world developed very quickly. Agricultural progress at that time had become a support for the expansion of the power of the Islamic caliphate. Islamic civilization became a world superpower at that time. The development of the agricultural sector in the golden era of Islam was driven by the emergence of technology and various equipment for farming.

Islamic Irrigation System

Early Islamic era irrigation technology was able to both bring in water and drain swamps. The irrigation systems developed in the Islamic world contain interesting technological and sociological aspects (Ahmad Y Al-Hassan and Donald R Hill in their book "Islamic Technology, an Illustrated History"). They developed water lifting equipment, water storage methods, and water distribution. In fact, they also succeeded in creating techniques for finding water sources, both hidden and underground systems (qanat).

As a result, the Islamic Caliphate succeeded in developing agriculture along the Tigris River (Iraq), where there were 200 villages with advanced agriculture. Water from the Euphrates River flowed to Mesopotamia, while water from the Tigris flowed to Persia. In this way, farmers can obtain irrigation water for their agriculture.

Not only that, the Abbasid Caliphate pioneered the draining of swamps for agricultural land, as well as fertilizing dry fields. It is not surprising that Iraq was known as a leading agricultural and plantation area at that time. It is not surprising that Iraq is called heaven on earth.

The desert becomes a field, they can even 'turn' the desert into a plantation. Arab countries, most of whose territory consists of dry land and desert, can be used as agricultural land thanks to technology and good irrigation systems.

Likewise in Andalusia. Farmers apply irrigation techniques and build irrigation canals to develop their agriculture. Under Islamic rule, Andalusia was transformed into a fertile plantation area. Along the Guadalquivir (Spain), there are 12 thousand villages that have fertile agricultural land worked by Muslim farmers. Likewise agricultural land in Egypt and Iraq. In Fayyum Province, Egypt, there are 360 ​​villages, each of which can provide the food needs of the population of all of Egypt.

Agricultural progress is equipped with the right knowledge of farming systems. The agricultural revolution, by introducing new crops as well as extensification and intensification through irrigation, has created a complex and varied agricultural system. Land that originally only produced one type of crop each year, was 'transformed' by Muslim farmers 2-3 times with different types of crops in rotation. As a result, agricultural production is sufficient to meet the needs of the growing urban population.

Soil-Tilling Plows

The animal-drawn plow used for tilling soil was originally created by Muslim agricultural engineers. A census conducted in 8th-century Egypt revealed that, out of 10,000 villages, not a single one possessed fewer than 500 plows.

The historian Al-Maqrizi documented the use of the plow as an agricultural tool within the Islamic world. According to him, the plow served to loosen the soil prior to planting and sowing seeds. As noted by Al-Hassan and Hill, citing the historian Al-Marqasi, farmers employed plows before cultivating sugarcane; Egyptian farmers would plow the land six times before planting the crop.

These plows were constructed from iron and featured tooth-like projections, resembling a brush. Muslim farmers utilized animals, such as oxen, to pull the plows. Muslim agricultural engineers developed distinct plowing techniques suited to various types of terrain. During that era, they authored manuals on land cultivation, such as *Kitab Al-Filaha Al-Nabatiya* (The Book of Nabataean Agriculture) by Ibn Wahshiyya. As scientific knowledge advanced, Muslim engineers continued to refine plow designs. Islamic civilization succeeded in creating disc plows tailored to specific soil types, ensuring that furrows were not cut excessively deep.

Harrows and Soil Forks

Other agricultural tools developed included harrows and soil forks. The fork—another animal-drawn implement—served to break up soil clods covering the seeds; it was used following the initial plowing process. Several designs existed at the time, such as the *Al-Mijarr* and the *Al-Mislafah*. Both consisted of a beam equipped with teeth for harrowing the land. The *Al-Mijarr* features holes at its ends and two pairs of tethering ropes, whereas the *Al-Maliq* consists of a wide wooden plank drawn by an ox; the *Al-Maliq* is used to level the furrows created by the plowshare for seed sowing. Both types of implements remain in use in various Islamic countries across the globe to this day.

Meanwhile, the harrow is another soil-cultivating tool made of wood, used to rake the soil and cover the seeds. One type of harrow used during that era was known as the *Al-Musyt*; it consisted of a crossbar fitted with teeth and a central handle.

Spades and Hoes

Muslim farmers successfully created soil-digging tools such as the spade, known as *al-isyat*. This tool was used for cultivating land that did not require a plow, such as vegetable and fruit gardens. Another type of spade, known as *al-mijnah* or *al-mijrafah*, was also known at the time and was used to lift and move excavated soil. Farmers of that era also used hoes to dig the soil; one specific type was called *al-miza’ah*.

Sickles for Cutting Crops

Muslim farmers also developed harvesting tools, specifically sickles or blades. These tools came in various forms—some serrated and others smooth-edged. Designs varied, ranging from those with a curved handle end to those with a blade that curved forward along the line of the stroke.

Harvesting Tools

After harvesting, the process proceeded to threshing—separating the grain from the stalk—a step historically known in farming as *pengirikan*. Several threshing methods existed in the past; one involved using livestock, such as oxen, to tread upon piles of wheat. The final stage was winnowing, which served to separate the chaff from the grain kernels. Most of these agricultural technologies remain in use today.

Crop Improvement Science

During this era of Muslim scientific advancement, Muslim agricultural experts developed new plant varieties using various methods. Techniques such as grafting and cross-breeding are still practiced today.

Muslim scientists introduced new plant varieties and disseminated them across various regions, enabling land that previously supported only one crop cycle per year to be intensified to two or three cycles through crop rotation. Consequently, agricultural production increased, allowing for the needs of a growing urban population to be met.

Under Islamic rule, Andalusia was transformed into a fertile agricultural region. Along the Guadalquivir River in Spain, there were 12,000 villages featuring fertile agricultural lands cultivated by Muslim farmers. The same was true for the farmlands of Egypt and Iraq. In Egypt's Fayyum Province, there were 360 ​​villages serving as centers of food production, while along the Tigris River in Iraq, there were 200 villages with advanced agriculture.  *****