Agricultural Land Leasing in Islam

Based on my reading, there is a difference of opinion regarding this practice of leasing. Some argue it is permissible, while others say it is not; it is unclear which view is more correct. However, according to an in-depth analysis by Jamaksari (2016), the group opposing it is actually a minority. I hesitate to draw a definitive conclusion because—compared to profit-sharing arrangements, for instance—references regarding land leasing in the history of Islamic society remain limited, as far as I have been able to find. God knows best.

Land is a crucial factor of production in the economy. For this reason, Islam rejects the concept of absolute land ownership akin to eigendom (permanent, unrestricted property rights). Given the finite nature of land, an individual who "controls" a plot of land is not permitted to leave it idle or uncultivated.

If the landowner is unable to cultivate the land personally—whether due to a lack of expertise or other reasons—they must entrust it to another person for cultivation. This cooperation can take the form of a lease (ijarah) or a profit-sharing arrangement (muzaarah).

Regarding land leasing in Islam, there are two differing opinions. According to Jamaksari (2016), those who permit land leasing include Imam Al-Shafi'i and the majority of scholars (jumhur), whereas those who prohibit it include Tawus, Abu Bakr bin Abdurrahman, and Ibn Hazm. In summary, scholars who permit the practice do so provided it adheres to the principle of public interest (maslahah) and involves payment in currency—such as money, dinars, dirhams, or other forms of value. Conversely, those who oppose it—such as Ibn Hazm—do so out of concern that one party might suffer a loss. Consequently, profit-sharing arrangements are often recommended as they are considered fairer to both parties.

The author notes that this divergence in opinion arises because proponents rely on the method of qiyas (analogy), whereas opponents base their position on the doctrine of nasikh-mansukh (abrogation). The qiyas method roughly means equalizing legal provisions between something that already has legal regulations and something else that has not yet been regulated by law. Meanwhile, nasikh massukh linguistically means removing, erasing, moving and writing. Presumably what this means is to eliminate the existing law with the arguments that come first with the arguments that come after. Wallahu a'lam...

Water Charity in Islam

Water is a fundamental component of agriculture and life itself. Islam teaches its followers to regard the provision of water as one of the most virtuous forms of charity. Water is a source of life essential to all living beings, regardless of religion, ethnicity, social status, or species. Consequently, providing others with access to water is viewed as an act of sadaqah jariyah (ongoing charity)—a deed whose spiritual rewards continue to accrue as long as the benefit endures.

One of the most renowned stories regarding water charity is that of the Well of Raumah (Bi'ru Rumah) in Medina. During the time of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), sources of fresh water in Medina were scarce. One of the finest wells was owned by a Jewish man who sold the water to the local population at a high price. This situation placed a burden on the Muslim community, who were living in economic hardship at the time.

When this issue was brought to the attention of the Prophet (PBUH), he declared:

"Whoever purchases the Well of Raumah and dedicates it to the benefit of the Muslims shall be granted Paradise." (Narrated by Tirmidzi)

Upon hearing this call, Uthman bin Affan (RA) immediately approached the well's owner. After some negotiation, the owner agreed to sell only half of the ownership rights for 12,000 dirhams. The agreement stipulated that the well would belong to Uthman on alternate days, while the Jewish owner would retain rights to it on the intervening days.

On the days the well was under Uthman’s management, the Muslims would collect enough water to last for several days. Consequently, they no longer needed to purchase water from the Jewish owner on the days it belonged to him. Seeing his business suffer losses, the owner eventually agreed to sell the entire well to Uthman bin Affan (RA). After the purchase, Uthman immediately designated the well as a waqf (endowment) for the public good, allowing the entire community to access water for free whenever they needed it. This story is an example that donating water is not just about giving a drink for a moment, but also building systems and facilities that guarantee the availability of water for the community in the long term. Therefore, the construction of wells, reservoirs, irrigation networks, rainwater reservoirs, clean water channels, and public drinking water facilities can be seen as a form of water charity which is highly recommended in Islam.

The priority of water alms is also emphasized in a hadith when Sa'ad bin Ubadah RA asked Rasulullah SAW about the best alms for his mother who had died. Rasulullah answered: "The most important charity is providing water." (HR. Abu Dawud)

This hadith shows that helping to provide clean water for the community is one of the most important charities in the sight of Allah SWT.

Islam also teaches that love through giving water is not only directed at humans, but also at all living creatures. Rasulullah SAW told the story of a man who was walking on a long journey. He felt very thirsty, so he found a well and went down to drink. After his thirst was quenched, he came out of the well and saw a dog sticking out its tongue and licking the wet ground because it was thirsty.

The man said in his heart, "This dog feels as thirsty as I felt earlier." He went back down into the well, filled his two shoes with water, bit them with his mouth so they could climb up, then gave the water to the dog. Because of his actions, Allah SWT was pleased with him and forgave his sins.

The companions asked, "O Messenger of Allah, do we also get a reward for doing good to animals?" Rasulullah answered: "In every creature that has a wet heart (living creatures), there is a reward." (Narrated by Al-Bukhari and Muslim)

This story teaches that the act of giving water as charity is a tangible expression of mercy and care for all of Allah’s creation. Even a thirsty animal can be the means by which a person attains forgiveness from Allah SWT.

From a broader perspective, the charity of providing water also conveys an important message regarding natural resource management. Protecting springs, preserving rivers, preventing pollution, conserving water, improving irrigation systems, and ensuring equitable access to water for the community are all part of the human mandate as stewards (khalifah) on earth. Thus, this form of charity is not merely about providing water to those in need; it also entails safeguarding the sustainability of water sources so that they may continue to benefit both present and future generations.

Consequently, every drop of water provided to humans, animals, or plants can become an act of worship. As long as that water continues to provide benefit, the spiritual reward continues to flow to the person who provided it. This is a form of sadaqah jariyah (ongoing charity)—simple in nature, yet possessing immense and long-lasting benefits within the Islamic worldview.

Islam Obliges Us to “Respect” Water

 

There are numerous hadiths concerning water. A hadith narrated by Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him) states that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: "Surplus water must not be withheld (dammed up), for doing so prevents the growth of pasture (herbage)." Another hadith, narrated by Abu Musa (may Allah be pleased with him), illustrates how the imparting of guidance and knowledge resembles raindrops moistening the earth. Sometimes these drops fall on barren ground, and at other times on fertile soil; the fertile ground represents those who are wise regarding the religion of Allah and who utilize that knowledge to the fullest extent. The status and importance of water in life are highlighted in many verses and hadiths: "...And We made from water every living thing..." (Al-Anbiya: 30). Like land, the total amount of water in the world remains constant; only its form changes. Therefore, water must be managed wisely and equitably. "And We sent down water from the sky in a measured amount and settled it in the earth" (Al-Mu’minun: 18). Among all commodities, the cultivation of paddy rice consumes the most water.

To avoid waste—since wastefulness is the companion of Satan—experts have developed "intermittent irrigation" technology, based on the principle of using only the necessary amount of water. This technology offers many benefits. Beyond conserving water—thereby allowing a larger area of ​​rice fields to be irrigated—other benefits include enabling roots to access air and grow deeper, preventing iron toxicity, preventing the accumulation of organic acids and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas that inhibit root development, reducing crop lodging, activating beneficial microorganisms, reducing the number of unproductive tillers, ensuring uniform grain ripening, accelerating harvest time, facilitating fertilizer application, and easing the control of golden apple snails while suppressing the spread of brown planthoppers, stem borers, and rats.

Water fosters collective action and a sense of community. A Hadith narrated by Ahmad and Abu Dawud states: "People share in three things: pasture, water, and fire." Just as with land, there is a social dimension to the ownership of water. Therefore, springs and wells must be made available for public use. Anyone possessing a water source is obliged to allow others to access it; monopolizing it solely for oneself and one's family is not permitted.

Because water is so precious, it must be carefully protected. Islam forbids disposing of waste in places that would contaminate water and render it unusable. "Indeed, the Prophet forbade urinating in stagnant water" (Narrated by Muslim). Water must not be wasted, even when it is abundant.

Water is a primary blessing bestowed by Allah upon His creation. Through water, Allah creates, sustains, nurtures, and develops all living beings on earth. "And Allah has created every [living] creature from water. Of them are those that move on their bellies, and of them are those that walk on two legs, and of them are those that walk on four legs. Allah creates what He wills. Indeed, Allah is over all things competent." (An-Nur: 45). Reverence for water is a deeply rooted cultural practice among various communities in our society. They perform symbolic rituals such as the irung-irung ceremony, grebeg tirto aji, mapag toya, and mapag cai. Additionally, there are ceremonies like nglampet at the Sumber Pakel spring in Lumajang, dawuhan (a water conservation practice) in Karanganyar, and Hajat Huluwotan, which focuses on preserving the headwaters of water sources.

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Islam Forbids Seizing Land and Altering Boundary Markers

 

 

Muslims are prohibited from seizing land and altering land boundary markers. Seizing land is clearly an act of oppression; it is uncivilized, unlawful, and classified as a major sin. Perpetrators face the threat of severe and painful punishment in the Hereafter. Taking another person's land—even just a hand-span's width—is a sin. It is narrated from Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) and Sa’id bin Zaid (may Allah be pleased with him) that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: "Whoever commits an act of oppression by taking even a hand-span of land will have that land hung around his neck like a yoke, extending down through the seven layers of the earth."

Similarly, a hadith narrated by Abdullah bin Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) quotes the Messenger of Allah as saying: "Whoever takes even a small amount of land without the right to do so will be sunk along with that land on the Day of Judgment, down to the very bottom of the seven layers of the earth."

In a hadith narrated by Ibn Thabit (may Allah be pleased with him), he stated that he heard the Messenger of Allah say: "Whoever takes land without the right to do so will be burdened with carrying that land [which he seized] all the way to the Gathering Place (Mahsyar)." These are some of the hadiths explaining the issue of seizing or taking another person's land. It is a terrifying prospect!

This practice of land seizure has occurred from the past to the present day. However, the nature of seizure today differs from the past; it is now known as "land grabbing." This has become a serious global issue. Seizures occur through both crude and subtle means—utilizing economic mechanisms and political power—with the strong taking from the weak.

International reports highlight the seizure of farmers' land in the developing world by major business figures, often in collaboration with local politicians. For instance, one can read the report titled "The Land Grabbing Crisis" from www.globalwitness.com. See also the article titled "The global land-grab phenomenon" on the website www.downtoearth-indonesia.org. Such seizures occur through corruption and the abuse of power, whereby community lands—often lacking formal title deeds—are appropriated by international agribusiness entrepreneurs. This is precisely what is happening to us as well; millions of hectares of forest land are being forcibly converted into palm oil plantations owned by foreign business interests.

The meaning of being "encircled by the seven layers of the earth" is that, on the Day of Judgment, Allah will burden the wrongdoer with the very land they unjustly seized—placing it around their neck like a yoke—or punish them by sinking them through the seven layers of the earth, gathering that entire expanse of land, and draping it around their neck. Some scholars explain that the wrongdoer's neck will become rigid and elongated, and the usurped land will be hung around it as retribution for their injustice. Such will be their humiliation on the Day of Judgment; it is a grave sin and a profound act of oppression.

Therefore, do not underestimate any act of injustice regarding land, however minor—such as shifting boundary markers inch by inch, moving earthen ridges, encroaching upon a neighbor's embankment, or altering water flows so that they erode another person's land. The scriptural basis for the prohibition against altering boundary markers is found in a hadith narrated by Ali bin Abi Talib (may Allah be pleased with him): "The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) told me four things; one of them was, 'Allah curses the person who alters land boundary markers.'" (Narrated by Imam Muslim). Allah curses the person who alters land boundary markers (Manarul Ardhi)—that is, the signs or symbols distinguishing the land that is rightfully yours from that of your neighbor—including moving such markers forward or backward.

In cases of such injustice, the usurped land must be returned to its owner. Sheikh Abdul Azhim Al-Badawi stated: "Whoever usurps land and subsequently cultivates it or erects a building upon it is required to uproot the crops and demolish the structure." This is based on the words of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him): "Whoever plants crops on another people's land without their permission has no right to any part of the harvest, though he is entitled to the costs incurred for planting."

Sheikh Abu Bakar Al-Jazairi stated: "If the usurped property is land upon which the usurper has built a house or planted crops, then the house must be demolished and the crops uprooted; furthermore, the land must be restored to repair the damage caused by the construction or cultivation. Alternatively, the house need not be demolished nor the crops uprooted, provided the usurper seeks reimbursement for the construction or planting costs—though this is permissible only if the landowner consents."

In essence, according to the words of Rosulullah SAW: "There is no right to plants or buildings on other people's land without their permission." When an argument arose, one of them had planted a date palm tree on the other's land. So the Messenger of Allah decided that the land would remain the property of the owner and ordered the owner of the date palm tree to uproot his date palm tree and he said: "The roots of the unjust have no rights. And do not let some of you consume the wealth of some of you in a false way." (Al-Baqarah: 188).

Why is the punishment for people who take other people's land as heavy as seven layers of land? Soil is unique. By owning a piece of land, a person controls both its bottom and top at the same time. Down to seven layers into the bowels of the earth, and up there is unlimited air space too. "Allah created the seven layers of heaven and earth like that too." (Ath Thalaq: 12).

Once a plot of land is recognized, then if your neighbor has a tree, then its branches extend into your land and the branches cover your land, then your neighbor actually has to bend the branches away from your land. If it cannot be bent, then the branch must be cut. Unless you allow it. Imam Al-Qurthubi said, "... grabbing land is a big sin."

For those who seize other people's land, it is obligatory for them to return the land they took to its owner. Shaykh Abdul Azhim Al Badawi said that anyone who seizes land and then plants it or builds on the land, is required to uproot the plants and destroy the buildings. And if he plants his crops for a certain fee, then he takes the costs and the crops to the land owner. The Hadith states: "Whoever plants on another people's land without their permission has no right to any part of the crop; he is entitled only to the cost of planting."

If the planting has already taken place, the crops must be removed. Furthermore, if a usurper builds a house on the land, that house must be demolished, and the land must be restored to repair the damage caused by the construction. Alternatively—if the house is not demolished and the crops are not removed—the usurper might seek reimbursement for the construction or planting costs, but this is permissible only if the landowner consents. This is because the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: "There is no right to crops or buildings on another person's land without their permission." The underlying principle is: "And do not consume one another's wealth unjustly" (Al-Baqarah: 188).

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Methods of Acquiring Land Ownership in Islam

According to Abdurrahman Al-Maliki in his book As-Siyasah al-Iqtishadiyah al-Mustla, land can be acquired through six methods: sale and purchase, inheritance, gifting (hibah), ihya’ al-mawat (reviving dead/uncultivated land), tahjir (marking boundaries on dead land), and iqta’ (state grants to citizens).

A person who revives abandoned land (ihya’ al-mawat) gains the right to possess it, based on the hadith: "Whoever revives dead land, it becomes his." (Narrated by Bukhari). The same applies to tahjir: "Whoever marks a boundary on [dead] land, it becomes his." (Narrated by Ahmad). In our society—regardless of how the practice originated—families who first cleared the land (often the earliest arrivals in a region) are held in very high esteem and respected as village elders, a status that extends to their descendants. Here, we see an alignment between local wisdom and Islamic values.

Loss of Agricultural Land Ownership Rights

Islamic Sharia stipulates that ownership rights to agricultural land are forfeited if the land is left abandoned for three consecutive years. The state will reclaim the land and grant it to another person capable of cultivating it. Umar bin Khattab stated: "A person who marks a boundary on land (muhtajir) no longer has a right to that land after it has been abandoned for three years." Umar implemented this ruling by reclaiming agricultural land belonging to Bilal bin Al-Harith Al-Muzni after it had been left uncultivated for three years. The Companions of the Prophet concurred with this action, establishing it as a consensus of the Companions (Ijma’ Sahabat). This revocation of ownership rights is not limited to mawat (dead/uncultivated) land acquired through tahjir (marking boundaries); it also extends to agricultural land acquired through purchase, inheritance, gifting, and other means. This is because the legal basis ('illah or ratio legis) for revoking ownership is not the method of acquisition, but rather the abandonment of the land for three years (ta'thil al-ardh).

(As a brief aside, the Indonesian government struggles to manage abandoned lands, despite the existence of Government Regulation No. 11 of 2010. Yet, such land often remains uncultivated for decades; HGU [Right to Cultivate] holders merely harvest the timber and then hoard the land indefinitely without clear purpose. That is hardly in the spirit of Islam.)

The intent behind this Islamic regulation is to ensure the optimal utilization of land (at-tasharruf fi al-ardh), given that land is a highly valuable resource; it must be productive. To this end, the state may assist by providing agricultural production facilities—a practice implemented by Caliph Umar bin Khattab for farmers. However, if a landowner is unable to cultivate the land, it is recommended that they transfer it to another person without compensation. Consistent with this principle, agricultural land—whether classified as kharajiyah or ushriyah—may not be leased out. The Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said: "Whoever possesses [agricultural] land should cultivate it or give it to his brother; if he refuses [to give it], then he should retain the land himself" (Narrated by Bukhari). This aligns with the view held by global academics that the treatment of land as a commodity (commodification) has been a source of recurring crises in the global economy.

Nevertheless, leasing agricultural land under a profit-sharing arrangement (muzara'ah) is permissible. Rasulullah SAW has made peace with the residents of Khaibar with a profit sharing system, namely half the results for Rasulullah SAW and half the results for the residents of Khaibar. The muamalah that the Prophet SAW carried out was sharing the profits from caring for existing trees, which is called musaqat, not sharing the profits from empty land which was then newly planted (muzara'ah).

Hima (state land) as common land

Islam also recognizes state ownership of land (hima) for the sake of the common good. Hima refers to land or territory specifically designated by the state for particular purposes, such as mining areas. Land containing mineral resources (oil, gold, silver, copper, etc.) remains private property if the yield is small, but becomes state (public) property if the yield is substantial.

Furthermore, the Messenger of Allah designated hima in specific locations—such as Naqi` (a pasture in Medina) reserved for grazing horses belonging to the Muslim community, and Rabdzah (a pasture reserved for grazing camels collected as zakat).

Beyond land-based areas, there is also the concept of "hariem," referring to zones that must be preserved and protected, specifically in the context of water bodies. The hariem of a water source can encompass river basins, lakes, wetlands, and excavated wells (or natural springs). A Hadith states: "The hariem of a well extends to the length of its draw-rope." This Hadith teaches us not to pollute water and to avoid placing waste sources near water sources. And Allah knows best. 

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The Roots of Islamic Agriculture: Land and Water

The following section begins with the primary resources of agriculture: land and water. Land is the determining factor in whether a person is classified as an owner-farmer, a sharecropper, or a farm laborer. Issues regarding land and water conditions evolved into matters concerning leasing, profit-sharing, sales, and zakat (obligatory almsgiving), thereby shaping an agrarian culture. Given the critical importance of these matters, Islam regulates them strictly. Land is not a trivial matter; the progress or regression, prosperity or misery, and stability or chaos of this world stem, to a significant extent, from the land policies we implement. Let us examine whether our current practices regarding land and water align with Islamic principles.

Islamic land law concerns the ownership (milkiyah), management (tasharruf), and distribution (tauzi') of land. In the study of Islamic jurisprudence, land law is known as Ahkam Al-Aradhi. Generally, fuqaha (Islamic jurists) discuss land law within the context of state management of assets (al-amwal). Some also link it to Islamic constitutional law. Indeed, to understand agrarian dynamics at the micro level, one must first grasp the macro-level politics involved.

The Philosophy of Land Ownership and the Urgency of Managing Agrarian Resources Based on the Law of Allah SWT

From an Islamic perspective, everything in the heavens and on earth—including land—fundamentally belongs solely to Allah SWT. "And to Allah belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth, and to Allah is the return [of all creatures]" (An-Nuur: 42). "His is the dominion of the heavens and the earth; He gives life and causes death, and He has power over all things" (Al-Hadid: 2).

What, then, is the position of human beings? Allah SWT has granted humans the authority to manage it; this implies that humans are merely "borrowing" it. Therefore, one must manage these assets—including land—in accordance with the laws of the true Owner, Allah. One of Allah’s Beautiful Names (Asmaul Husna) is Al-Baasith, meaning "The Expander" or "The One Who Bestows Abundance." Indeed, Allah’s laws regarding land are fundamentally intended to provide ease and abundance for humanity, not to burden them.

Allah SWT states: "And spend out of that in which He has made you trustees" (Al-Hadid: 7). According to Imam Al-Qurtubi, this verse serves as evidence that the ultimate source of ownership (ashlul milki) belongs to Allah SWT, and that humans possess no right other than to utilize or manage it (tasharruf) in a manner pleasing to Allah SWT. Thus, let us henceforth apply Allah’s laws in the management of land. We need to reformulate all ideas and concepts regarding agrarian matters. Regarding this law, Allah has clearly decreed: "And He shares not His legislation with anyone" (Al-Kahfi: 26).

Land Ownership and Its Implications under Islamic Law

In Islamic Sharia, ownership (milkiyah) is defined as a right established by Allah (SWT) for humans to utilize a specific object (idznu asy-Syari' bi al-intifa' bil-'ain). An individual's right of ownership arises from Allah's legal ruling regarding that object. Regarding land, two aspects must be distinguished: ownership of the land's substance (raqabah al-ardh) and ownership of the right to utilize the land (manfaah al-ardh).

Islamic Sharia recognizes two categories of land: (1) Usyriah land (al-ardhu al-'usyriyah) and (2) Kharajiyah land (al-ardhu al-kharajiyah). Historically, Usyriah land refers to land whose inhabitants embraced Islam peacefully—without warfare—such as Medina, or "dead land" (mawat) that has been reclaimed and cultivated by an individual. Consequently, Usyriah land belongs to the individual in terms of both its substance and its utility. The owner may sell, mortgage, gift, or bequeath the land, among other actions. If the land is agricultural, it is subject to the ushr obligation (agricultural zakat): 10 percent for rain-fed land and 5 percent for irrigated land. "On land watered by rivers and rain, the zakat is one-tenth; on land watered by camels [using irrigation mechanisms], the zakat is half of one-tenth" (Hadith narrated by Ahmad, Muslim, and Abu Dawud). If such land is traded as a commodity, it becomes subject to zakat on trade.

The second type is Kharajiyah land, which refers to land brought under Muslim control through warfare—such as the lands of Iraq, the Levant (Sham), and Egypt (excluding the Arabian Peninsula)—or land acquired through a peace treaty (al-sulh), such as the lands of Bahrain and Khorasan. Regarding this type of land, its underlying substance (raqabah) belongs to the entire Muslim community; the state manages it—acting through the Baitul Mal—on behalf of the Muslims. Indeed, while the state owns the substance of kharaj land, individuals hold the right to its use. Such land may be bought, sold, gifted, or inherited; however, it cannot be designated as waqf (religious endowment) because the state retains ownership of the land itself.

If kharaj land is agricultural, it is subject to the kharaj obligation (land tax), which the state collects annually based on the land's condition; the tax must be paid regardless of whether the land is cultivated or left fallow. If the kharaj land is not agricultural, it is exempt from both kharaj and zakat (obligatory almsgiving) on ​​the land itself, though it becomes subject to zakat on trade if the land is bought and sold. ******

Islamic Prohibitions regarding the treatment of animals

 

Conversely, there is a hadith narrated by Anas bin Malik (may Allah be pleased with him) in which the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) forbade the confinement of livestock (without a religiously valid reason).

"The Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) forbade the castration of horses and other animals." (Narrated by Ahmad). This hadith addresses the preservation of animal life by prohibiting castration. Castration involves altering a living creature so that it can no longer reproduce; this can be done by removing part of the reproductive organs or by rendering the organs non-functional while keeping them intact.

Historically, animals were castrated to promote rapid growth and weight gain, as well as to increase physical strength, since the nutrients consumed were not diverted toward reproduction.

Islam prohibits this type of castration because it leads to the extinction of the animal's lineage (preventing the continuation of the species) and deprives the animal of a fundamental instinct: the drive to propagate its kind.

"Indeed, the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) strictly forbade the confinement of any living being and the castration of animals." (Narrated by Al-Bazzar). In addition to prohibiting the neutering of animals, Islam also upholds animal freedom by forbidding their confinement in ways that remove them from their natural habitats. Such confinement deprives animals of their liberty and access to their preferred food, and can deny them the opportunity to reproduce—ultimately potentially leading to their extinction.

Like humans, animals can experience stress or emotional distress when confined in cages—especially when kept in isolation without a mate. After all, animals, just like humans, possess an innate instinct to live in pairs.

And so it is; wallahu ‘alam (Allah knows best).