Agriculture is generative and multiplicative—not merely transformative, and certainly not extractive

This distinction is fundamental because agriculture does something that most economic activities cannot: it creates new biological wealth. In manufacturing, production is essentially transformative. A ton of iron may be transformed into a car, but the material itself does not multiply; indeed, some mass is inevitably lost in the process. Its basic logic is therefore: one input becomes one product, minus losses. Manufacturing changes the form of wealth that already exists. Agriculture, by contrast, does not merely transform matter—it generates and reproduces life.

Consider a simple seed. One bean seed can produce dozens of pods, each containing several seeds, potentially turning one seed into hundreds. One grain of rice can produce hundreds or even around a thousand grains. The essential logic is therefore not “one becomes one,” but “one becomes many.” In economic terms, agriculture is generative, multiplicative, and proliferative production. It is a positive-sum process rooted in biological reproduction. In English, concepts such as self-replicating production, regenerative production, or fecund production can help describe this distinctive characteristic. The farmer does not simply reshape an existing resource; the farmer initiates a biological process through which new wealth emerges.

Classical Islamic thought offers an even deeper language for understanding this phenomenon. Islamic jurisprudence and Islamic economic thought recognize the special nature of agricultural production through concepts associated with an-nama’—growth, increase, and multiplication. Agricultural activity can therefore be understood as an amal characterized by an-nama’: an act in which something grows from within and multiplies beyond the original input. The farmer does not manufacture this multiplication by his own power. He provides the seed, land, water, labour, and care; but the capacity of life to grow and reproduce is ultimately a gift from Allah. This is why agricultural production is so closely associated with the idea of barakah—blessing and multiplication beyond the apparent input.

The Qur'an presents perhaps the most powerful illustration of this logic in the parable of spending in the way of Allah: “The example of those who spend their wealth in the way of Allah is like a seed that grows seven ears, with a hundred grains in each ear” (QS. Al-Baqarah: 261). One becomes seven hundred. The point is not simply the arithmetic; it is the underlying logic of multiplication. A small act can generate an outcome far greater than its original material form. Agriculture provides humanity with a tangible experience of this principle every planting season: a farmer places a small seed into the soil, seemingly burying something valuable, yet that act of giving produces a multiplied return. The factory can reproduce a product, but it cannot reproduce life in this biological sense.

This gives us a powerful philosophical distinction for understanding human economic activity: “Generative Deeds” (Amal Melahirkan) versus “Processing Deeds” (Amal Mengolah). Merchants and manufacturers primarily process, exchange, and transform wealth that already exists. Farmers, however, participate in bringing forth new biological wealth. They entrust one living potential—the seed—to the soil, and through a process they cannot fully control, Allah brings forth many new lives. This is why agriculture is more than an occupation or a production system. It is a daily encounter with a fundamental divine pattern: you give a little, and life returns it multiplied. In this sense, agriculture teaches an economic philosophy of trust, patience, care, and giving.

So, ladies and gentlemen, colleagues and friends, let us remember this beautiful idea: agriculture is a mubarakah activity—an activity of blessing and multiplication. It is fundamentally an act of giving rather than merely taking. The farmer gives a seed to the soil, gives labour to the land, gives patience to time, and receives back something that is often far greater than what was initially given. Perhaps this is one of the deepest lessons agriculture offers humanity: while much of the economy is concerned with transforming what already exists, agriculture reminds us that true prosperity can also come from nurturing life until it multiplies.

That is why Agricultural Economics is (ought to be) not a derivative of Economics.

If the foundational assumptions of a discipline differ, then that discipline cannot merely be positioned as a subordinate branch of another. Conventional economics is built upon the assumptions of scarcity, limited resources, and the efficient allocation of those resources. Agriculture, by contrast, operates through the mechanisms of biological growth, the reproduction of life, resource regeneration, and nature’s inherent capacity to multiply itself. Its subject matter is not merely goods and services, but living organisms that grow, develop, adapt, and reproduce. For this reason, agriculture is fundamentally closer to the life sciences than to a simple application of economic theory to food production.

In manufacturing, value is created through the transformation of raw materials by human intervention. In agriculture, however, the primary source of value creation lies in biological processes that are largely beyond human control. Farmers do not create rice grains, roots, flowers, fruits, or seeds. They merely provide the conditions necessary for growth; the rest is governed by the laws of life embedded by God within nature itself. Consequently, risk, uncertainty, seasons, weather, pests, soil fertility, and the reproductive capacity of plants become central variables. It is therefore unsurprising that many general economic theories are often insufficient to explain agricultural behavior, giving rise to distinctive concepts such as cropping seasons, biological cycles, carrying capacity, sustainability, food security, and ecosystem services.

From a philosophical perspective, Agricultural Economics should therefore be viewed as a discipline that stands alongside Economics rather than beneath it. Economics studies how human beings allocate scarce resources, whereas Agricultural Economics examines how human beings manage living processes capable of multiplying resources through the mechanisms of natural growth. One begins with the logic of scarcity; the other begins with the logic of abundance generated through growth. One focuses on distribution and exchange; the other focuses on the creation of life and regeneration. Agriculture, therefore, is not merely an economic activity; it is a civilizational endeavor that connects humanity, nature, and the Creator in a continuous process of value creation through living growth.

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WAGES AND ETIQUETTE REGARDING FARM LABORERS

Islam views the laborer as an equal to the owner—

not merely as capital.

Pay and treat them just as you would treat

your own brother.

Once, an Australian convert to Islam came to see me specifically after reading my book, The Islamic Miracle of Hard Work. He sought an answer regarding how to determine the wages for the farm laborers working on his land in accordance with Islamic teachings. Honestly, I was somewhat stumped; despite my age, I had never heard a religious teacher speak or read a book on this specific topic.

In the end, I relied on common sense, even though I felt a bit embarrassed being asked such a "simple" question. As it happened, I had recently attended a discussion on family farming. I answered that the benchmark should be dignity. I asked him, "What wage can you offer that doesn't place an undue burden on you, yet allows the laborer and his family to live with dignity?" There were two laborer families working full-time on his farm—working all day and living right there on the property. I suggested considering how to ensure their basic needs were met: healthy food, decent clothing, habitable housing, and at least the fulfillment of their children's schooling needs.

After giving that somewhat tentative answer, I decided to search for the topic on Google. The results were roughly as follows.

One of the most well-known hadiths is: "Give the worker his wages before his sweat dries" (Narrated by Ibn Majah). However, few sources discuss exactly how much a laborer's wage should be.

Issues regarding labor in this country seem never-ending. Conflicts frequently arise between workers and company management—the party doing the hiring. In the informal sector, disputes between domestic workers and their employers are also common occurrences. To address this issue, a Bill on Domestic Workers is currently being deliberated by the House of Representatives (DPR RI) as part of the 2020–2024 National Legislation Program. This is a positive development.

In life, human beings naturally rely on one another; those with means employ individuals in need of a livelihood. Disputes between employers and workers need not occur, provided both parties steadfastly adhere to Islamic teachings. As a perfect religion, Islam provides guidance on adab al-ijaarah (the etiquette of hiring) and the proper conduct of muamalah (social and economic interactions) between an employer (musta’jir) and a worker (ajir). In his book Mausuu’atul Aadaab Al-Islaamiyyah, Sheikh Abdul Azis bin Fathi As-Sayyid Nada discusses these etiquettes extensively, grounding them in the Quran and Hadith.

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Water Charity in Islam

Water is a fundamental component of agriculture and life itself. Islam teaches its followers to regard the provision of water as one of the most virtuous forms of charity. Water is a source of life essential to all living beings, regardless of religion, ethnicity, social status, or species. Consequently, providing others with access to water is viewed as an act of sadaqah jariyah (ongoing charity)—a deed whose spiritual rewards continue to accrue as long as the benefit endures.

One of the most renowned stories regarding water charity is that of the Well of Raumah (Bi'ru Rumah) in Medina. During the time of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), sources of fresh water in Medina were scarce. One of the finest wells was owned by a Jewish man who sold the water to the local population at a high price. This situation placed a burden on the Muslim community, who were living in economic hardship at the time.

When this issue was brought to the attention of the Prophet (PBUH), he declared:

"Whoever purchases the Well of Raumah and dedicates it to the benefit of the Muslims shall be granted Paradise." (Narrated by Tirmidzi)

Upon hearing this call, Uthman bin Affan (RA) immediately approached the well's owner. After some negotiation, the owner agreed to sell only half of the ownership rights for 12,000 dirhams. The agreement stipulated that the well would belong to Uthman on alternate days, while the Jewish owner would retain rights to it on the intervening days.

On the days the well was under Uthman’s management, the Muslims would collect enough water to last for several days. Consequently, they no longer needed to purchase water from the Jewish owner on the days it belonged to him. Seeing his business suffer losses, the owner eventually agreed to sell the entire well to Uthman bin Affan (RA). After the purchase, Uthman immediately designated the well as a waqf (endowment) for the public good, allowing the entire community to access water for free whenever they needed it. This story is an example that donating water is not just about giving a drink for a moment, but also building systems and facilities that guarantee the availability of water for the community in the long term. Therefore, the construction of wells, reservoirs, irrigation networks, rainwater reservoirs, clean water channels, and public drinking water facilities can be seen as a form of water charity which is highly recommended in Islam.

The priority of water alms is also emphasized in a hadith when Sa'ad bin Ubadah RA asked Rasulullah SAW about the best alms for his mother who had died. Rasulullah answered: "The most important charity is providing water." (HR. Abu Dawud)

This hadith shows that helping to provide clean water for the community is one of the most important charities in the sight of Allah SWT.

Islam also teaches that love through giving water is not only directed at humans, but also at all living creatures. Rasulullah SAW told the story of a man who was walking on a long journey. He felt very thirsty, so he found a well and went down to drink. After his thirst was quenched, he came out of the well and saw a dog sticking out its tongue and licking the wet ground because it was thirsty.

The man said in his heart, "This dog feels as thirsty as I felt earlier." He went back down into the well, filled his two shoes with water, bit them with his mouth so they could climb up, then gave the water to the dog. Because of his actions, Allah SWT was pleased with him and forgave his sins.

The companions asked, "O Messenger of Allah, do we also get a reward for doing good to animals?" Rasulullah answered: "In every creature that has a wet heart (living creatures), there is a reward." (Narrated by Al-Bukhari and Muslim)

This story teaches that the act of giving water as charity is a tangible expression of mercy and care for all of Allah’s creation. Even a thirsty animal can be the means by which a person attains forgiveness from Allah SWT.

From a broader perspective, the charity of providing water also conveys an important message regarding natural resource management. Protecting springs, preserving rivers, preventing pollution, conserving water, improving irrigation systems, and ensuring equitable access to water for the community are all part of the human mandate as stewards (khalifah) on earth. Thus, this form of charity is not merely about providing water to those in need; it also entails safeguarding the sustainability of water sources so that they may continue to benefit both present and future generations.

Consequently, every drop of water provided to humans, animals, or plants can become an act of worship. As long as that water continues to provide benefit, the spiritual reward continues to flow to the person who provided it. This is a form of sadaqah jariyah (ongoing charity)—simple in nature, yet possessing immense and long-lasting benefits within the Islamic worldview.

Islam Obliges Us to “Respect” Water

 

There are numerous hadiths concerning water. A hadith narrated by Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him) states that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: "Surplus water must not be withheld (dammed up), for doing so prevents the growth of pasture (herbage)." Another hadith, narrated by Abu Musa (may Allah be pleased with him), illustrates how the imparting of guidance and knowledge resembles raindrops moistening the earth. Sometimes these drops fall on barren ground, and at other times on fertile soil; the fertile ground represents those who are wise regarding the religion of Allah and who utilize that knowledge to the fullest extent. The status and importance of water in life are highlighted in many verses and hadiths: "...And We made from water every living thing..." (Al-Anbiya: 30). Like land, the total amount of water in the world remains constant; only its form changes. Therefore, water must be managed wisely and equitably. "And We sent down water from the sky in a measured amount and settled it in the earth" (Al-Mu’minun: 18). Among all commodities, the cultivation of paddy rice consumes the most water.

To avoid waste—since wastefulness is the companion of Satan—experts have developed "intermittent irrigation" technology, based on the principle of using only the necessary amount of water. This technology offers many benefits. Beyond conserving water—thereby allowing a larger area of ​​rice fields to be irrigated—other benefits include enabling roots to access air and grow deeper, preventing iron toxicity, preventing the accumulation of organic acids and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas that inhibit root development, reducing crop lodging, activating beneficial microorganisms, reducing the number of unproductive tillers, ensuring uniform grain ripening, accelerating harvest time, facilitating fertilizer application, and easing the control of golden apple snails while suppressing the spread of brown planthoppers, stem borers, and rats.

Water fosters collective action and a sense of community. A Hadith narrated by Ahmad and Abu Dawud states: "People share in three things: pasture, water, and fire." Just as with land, there is a social dimension to the ownership of water. Therefore, springs and wells must be made available for public use. Anyone possessing a water source is obliged to allow others to access it; monopolizing it solely for oneself and one's family is not permitted.

Because water is so precious, it must be carefully protected. Islam forbids disposing of waste in places that would contaminate water and render it unusable. "Indeed, the Prophet forbade urinating in stagnant water" (Narrated by Muslim). Water must not be wasted, even when it is abundant.

Water is a primary blessing bestowed by Allah upon His creation. Through water, Allah creates, sustains, nurtures, and develops all living beings on earth. "And Allah has created every [living] creature from water. Of them are those that move on their bellies, and of them are those that walk on two legs, and of them are those that walk on four legs. Allah creates what He wills. Indeed, Allah is over all things competent." (An-Nur: 45). Reverence for water is a deeply rooted cultural practice among various communities in our society. They perform symbolic rituals such as the irung-irung ceremony, grebeg tirto aji, mapag toya, and mapag cai. Additionally, there are ceremonies like nglampet at the Sumber Pakel spring in Lumajang, dawuhan (a water conservation practice) in Karanganyar, and Hajat Huluwotan, which focuses on preserving the headwaters of water sources.

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Islam Forbids Seizing Land and Altering Boundary Markers

 

 

Muslims are prohibited from seizing land and altering land boundary markers. Seizing land is clearly an act of oppression; it is uncivilized, unlawful, and classified as a major sin. Perpetrators face the threat of severe and painful punishment in the Hereafter. Taking another person's land—even just a hand-span's width—is a sin. It is narrated from Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) and Sa’id bin Zaid (may Allah be pleased with him) that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: "Whoever commits an act of oppression by taking even a hand-span of land will have that land hung around his neck like a yoke, extending down through the seven layers of the earth."

Similarly, a hadith narrated by Abdullah bin Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) quotes the Messenger of Allah as saying: "Whoever takes even a small amount of land without the right to do so will be sunk along with that land on the Day of Judgment, down to the very bottom of the seven layers of the earth."

In a hadith narrated by Ibn Thabit (may Allah be pleased with him), he stated that he heard the Messenger of Allah say: "Whoever takes land without the right to do so will be burdened with carrying that land [which he seized] all the way to the Gathering Place (Mahsyar)." These are some of the hadiths explaining the issue of seizing or taking another person's land. It is a terrifying prospect!

This practice of land seizure has occurred from the past to the present day. However, the nature of seizure today differs from the past; it is now known as "land grabbing." This has become a serious global issue. Seizures occur through both crude and subtle means—utilizing economic mechanisms and political power—with the strong taking from the weak.

International reports highlight the seizure of farmers' land in the developing world by major business figures, often in collaboration with local politicians. For instance, one can read the report titled "The Land Grabbing Crisis" from www.globalwitness.com. See also the article titled "The global land-grab phenomenon" on the website www.downtoearth-indonesia.org. Such seizures occur through corruption and the abuse of power, whereby community lands—often lacking formal title deeds—are appropriated by international agribusiness entrepreneurs. This is precisely what is happening to us as well; millions of hectares of forest land are being forcibly converted into palm oil plantations owned by foreign business interests.

The meaning of being "encircled by the seven layers of the earth" is that, on the Day of Judgment, Allah will burden the wrongdoer with the very land they unjustly seized—placing it around their neck like a yoke—or punish them by sinking them through the seven layers of the earth, gathering that entire expanse of land, and draping it around their neck. Some scholars explain that the wrongdoer's neck will become rigid and elongated, and the usurped land will be hung around it as retribution for their injustice. Such will be their humiliation on the Day of Judgment; it is a grave sin and a profound act of oppression.

Therefore, do not underestimate any act of injustice regarding land, however minor—such as shifting boundary markers inch by inch, moving earthen ridges, encroaching upon a neighbor's embankment, or altering water flows so that they erode another person's land. The scriptural basis for the prohibition against altering boundary markers is found in a hadith narrated by Ali bin Abi Talib (may Allah be pleased with him): "The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) told me four things; one of them was, 'Allah curses the person who alters land boundary markers.'" (Narrated by Imam Muslim). Allah curses the person who alters land boundary markers (Manarul Ardhi)—that is, the signs or symbols distinguishing the land that is rightfully yours from that of your neighbor—including moving such markers forward or backward.

In cases of such injustice, the usurped land must be returned to its owner. Sheikh Abdul Azhim Al-Badawi stated: "Whoever usurps land and subsequently cultivates it or erects a building upon it is required to uproot the crops and demolish the structure." This is based on the words of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him): "Whoever plants crops on another people's land without their permission has no right to any part of the harvest, though he is entitled to the costs incurred for planting."

Sheikh Abu Bakar Al-Jazairi stated: "If the usurped property is land upon which the usurper has built a house or planted crops, then the house must be demolished and the crops uprooted; furthermore, the land must be restored to repair the damage caused by the construction or cultivation. Alternatively, the house need not be demolished nor the crops uprooted, provided the usurper seeks reimbursement for the construction or planting costs—though this is permissible only if the landowner consents."

In essence, according to the words of Rosulullah SAW: "There is no right to plants or buildings on other people's land without their permission." When an argument arose, one of them had planted a date palm tree on the other's land. So the Messenger of Allah decided that the land would remain the property of the owner and ordered the owner of the date palm tree to uproot his date palm tree and he said: "The roots of the unjust have no rights. And do not let some of you consume the wealth of some of you in a false way." (Al-Baqarah: 188).

Why is the punishment for people who take other people's land as heavy as seven layers of land? Soil is unique. By owning a piece of land, a person controls both its bottom and top at the same time. Down to seven layers into the bowels of the earth, and up there is unlimited air space too. "Allah created the seven layers of heaven and earth like that too." (Ath Thalaq: 12).

Once a plot of land is recognized, then if your neighbor has a tree, then its branches extend into your land and the branches cover your land, then your neighbor actually has to bend the branches away from your land. If it cannot be bent, then the branch must be cut. Unless you allow it. Imam Al-Qurthubi said, "... grabbing land is a big sin."

For those who seize other people's land, it is obligatory for them to return the land they took to its owner. Shaykh Abdul Azhim Al Badawi said that anyone who seizes land and then plants it or builds on the land, is required to uproot the plants and destroy the buildings. And if he plants his crops for a certain fee, then he takes the costs and the crops to the land owner. The Hadith states: "Whoever plants on another people's land without their permission has no right to any part of the crop; he is entitled only to the cost of planting."

If the planting has already taken place, the crops must be removed. Furthermore, if a usurper builds a house on the land, that house must be demolished, and the land must be restored to repair the damage caused by the construction. Alternatively—if the house is not demolished and the crops are not removed—the usurper might seek reimbursement for the construction or planting costs, but this is permissible only if the landowner consents. This is because the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: "There is no right to crops or buildings on another person's land without their permission." The underlying principle is: "And do not consume one another's wealth unjustly" (Al-Baqarah: 188).

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Methods of Acquiring Land Ownership in Islam

According to Abdurrahman Al-Maliki in his book As-Siyasah al-Iqtishadiyah al-Mustla, land can be acquired through six methods: sale and purchase, inheritance, gifting (hibah), ihya’ al-mawat (reviving dead/uncultivated land), tahjir (marking boundaries on dead land), and iqta’ (state grants to citizens).

A person who revives abandoned land (ihya’ al-mawat) gains the right to possess it, based on the hadith: "Whoever revives dead land, it becomes his." (Narrated by Bukhari). The same applies to tahjir: "Whoever marks a boundary on [dead] land, it becomes his." (Narrated by Ahmad). In our society—regardless of how the practice originated—families who first cleared the land (often the earliest arrivals in a region) are held in very high esteem and respected as village elders, a status that extends to their descendants. Here, we see an alignment between local wisdom and Islamic values.

Loss of Agricultural Land Ownership Rights

Islamic Sharia stipulates that ownership rights to agricultural land are forfeited if the land is left abandoned for three consecutive years. The state will reclaim the land and grant it to another person capable of cultivating it. Umar bin Khattab stated: "A person who marks a boundary on land (muhtajir) no longer has a right to that land after it has been abandoned for three years." Umar implemented this ruling by reclaiming agricultural land belonging to Bilal bin Al-Harith Al-Muzni after it had been left uncultivated for three years. The Companions of the Prophet concurred with this action, establishing it as a consensus of the Companions (Ijma’ Sahabat). This revocation of ownership rights is not limited to mawat (dead/uncultivated) land acquired through tahjir (marking boundaries); it also extends to agricultural land acquired through purchase, inheritance, gifting, and other means. This is because the legal basis ('illah or ratio legis) for revoking ownership is not the method of acquisition, but rather the abandonment of the land for three years (ta'thil al-ardh).

(As a brief aside, the Indonesian government struggles to manage abandoned lands, despite the existence of Government Regulation No. 11 of 2010. Yet, such land often remains uncultivated for decades; HGU [Right to Cultivate] holders merely harvest the timber and then hoard the land indefinitely without clear purpose. That is hardly in the spirit of Islam.)

The intent behind this Islamic regulation is to ensure the optimal utilization of land (at-tasharruf fi al-ardh), given that land is a highly valuable resource; it must be productive. To this end, the state may assist by providing agricultural production facilities—a practice implemented by Caliph Umar bin Khattab for farmers. However, if a landowner is unable to cultivate the land, it is recommended that they transfer it to another person without compensation. Consistent with this principle, agricultural land—whether classified as kharajiyah or ushriyah—may not be leased out. The Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said: "Whoever possesses [agricultural] land should cultivate it or give it to his brother; if he refuses [to give it], then he should retain the land himself" (Narrated by Bukhari). This aligns with the view held by global academics that the treatment of land as a commodity (commodification) has been a source of recurring crises in the global economy.

Nevertheless, leasing agricultural land under a profit-sharing arrangement (muzara'ah) is permissible. Rasulullah SAW has made peace with the residents of Khaibar with a profit sharing system, namely half the results for Rasulullah SAW and half the results for the residents of Khaibar. The muamalah that the Prophet SAW carried out was sharing the profits from caring for existing trees, which is called musaqat, not sharing the profits from empty land which was then newly planted (muzara'ah).

Hima (state land) as common land

Islam also recognizes state ownership of land (hima) for the sake of the common good. Hima refers to land or territory specifically designated by the state for particular purposes, such as mining areas. Land containing mineral resources (oil, gold, silver, copper, etc.) remains private property if the yield is small, but becomes state (public) property if the yield is substantial.

Furthermore, the Messenger of Allah designated hima in specific locations—such as Naqi` (a pasture in Medina) reserved for grazing horses belonging to the Muslim community, and Rabdzah (a pasture reserved for grazing camels collected as zakat).

Beyond land-based areas, there is also the concept of "hariem," referring to zones that must be preserved and protected, specifically in the context of water bodies. The hariem of a water source can encompass river basins, lakes, wetlands, and excavated wells (or natural springs). A Hadith states: "The hariem of a well extends to the length of its draw-rope." This Hadith teaches us not to pollute water and to avoid placing waste sources near water sources. And Allah knows best. 

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The Roots of Islamic Agriculture: Land and Water

The following section begins with the primary resources of agriculture: land and water. Land is the determining factor in whether a person is classified as an owner-farmer, a sharecropper, or a farm laborer. Issues regarding land and water conditions evolved into matters concerning leasing, profit-sharing, sales, and zakat (obligatory almsgiving), thereby shaping an agrarian culture. Given the critical importance of these matters, Islam regulates them strictly. Land is not a trivial matter; the progress or regression, prosperity or misery, and stability or chaos of this world stem, to a significant extent, from the land policies we implement. Let us examine whether our current practices regarding land and water align with Islamic principles.

Islamic land law concerns the ownership (milkiyah), management (tasharruf), and distribution (tauzi') of land. In the study of Islamic jurisprudence, land law is known as Ahkam Al-Aradhi. Generally, fuqaha (Islamic jurists) discuss land law within the context of state management of assets (al-amwal). Some also link it to Islamic constitutional law. Indeed, to understand agrarian dynamics at the micro level, one must first grasp the macro-level politics involved.

The Philosophy of Land Ownership and the Urgency of Managing Agrarian Resources Based on the Law of Allah SWT

From an Islamic perspective, everything in the heavens and on earth—including land—fundamentally belongs solely to Allah SWT. "And to Allah belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth, and to Allah is the return [of all creatures]" (An-Nuur: 42). "His is the dominion of the heavens and the earth; He gives life and causes death, and He has power over all things" (Al-Hadid: 2).

What, then, is the position of human beings? Allah SWT has granted humans the authority to manage it; this implies that humans are merely "borrowing" it. Therefore, one must manage these assets—including land—in accordance with the laws of the true Owner, Allah. One of Allah’s Beautiful Names (Asmaul Husna) is Al-Baasith, meaning "The Expander" or "The One Who Bestows Abundance." Indeed, Allah’s laws regarding land are fundamentally intended to provide ease and abundance for humanity, not to burden them.

Allah SWT states: "And spend out of that in which He has made you trustees" (Al-Hadid: 7). According to Imam Al-Qurtubi, this verse serves as evidence that the ultimate source of ownership (ashlul milki) belongs to Allah SWT, and that humans possess no right other than to utilize or manage it (tasharruf) in a manner pleasing to Allah SWT. Thus, let us henceforth apply Allah’s laws in the management of land. We need to reformulate all ideas and concepts regarding agrarian matters. Regarding this law, Allah has clearly decreed: "And He shares not His legislation with anyone" (Al-Kahfi: 26).

Land Ownership and Its Implications under Islamic Law

In Islamic Sharia, ownership (milkiyah) is defined as a right established by Allah (SWT) for humans to utilize a specific object (idznu asy-Syari' bi al-intifa' bil-'ain). An individual's right of ownership arises from Allah's legal ruling regarding that object. Regarding land, two aspects must be distinguished: ownership of the land's substance (raqabah al-ardh) and ownership of the right to utilize the land (manfaah al-ardh).

Islamic Sharia recognizes two categories of land: (1) Usyriah land (al-ardhu al-'usyriyah) and (2) Kharajiyah land (al-ardhu al-kharajiyah). Historically, Usyriah land refers to land whose inhabitants embraced Islam peacefully—without warfare—such as Medina, or "dead land" (mawat) that has been reclaimed and cultivated by an individual. Consequently, Usyriah land belongs to the individual in terms of both its substance and its utility. The owner may sell, mortgage, gift, or bequeath the land, among other actions. If the land is agricultural, it is subject to the ushr obligation (agricultural zakat): 10 percent for rain-fed land and 5 percent for irrigated land. "On land watered by rivers and rain, the zakat is one-tenth; on land watered by camels [using irrigation mechanisms], the zakat is half of one-tenth" (Hadith narrated by Ahmad, Muslim, and Abu Dawud). If such land is traded as a commodity, it becomes subject to zakat on trade.

The second type is Kharajiyah land, which refers to land brought under Muslim control through warfare—such as the lands of Iraq, the Levant (Sham), and Egypt (excluding the Arabian Peninsula)—or land acquired through a peace treaty (al-sulh), such as the lands of Bahrain and Khorasan. Regarding this type of land, its underlying substance (raqabah) belongs to the entire Muslim community; the state manages it—acting through the Baitul Mal—on behalf of the Muslims. Indeed, while the state owns the substance of kharaj land, individuals hold the right to its use. Such land may be bought, sold, gifted, or inherited; however, it cannot be designated as waqf (religious endowment) because the state retains ownership of the land itself.

If kharaj land is agricultural, it is subject to the kharaj obligation (land tax), which the state collects annually based on the land's condition; the tax must be paid regardless of whether the land is cultivated or left fallow. If the kharaj land is not agricultural, it is exempt from both kharaj and zakat (obligatory almsgiving) on ​​the land itself, though it becomes subject to zakat on trade if the land is bought and sold. ******

Islamic Prohibitions regarding the treatment of animals

 

Conversely, there is a hadith narrated by Anas bin Malik (may Allah be pleased with him) in which the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) forbade the confinement of livestock (without a religiously valid reason).

"The Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) forbade the castration of horses and other animals." (Narrated by Ahmad). This hadith addresses the preservation of animal life by prohibiting castration. Castration involves altering a living creature so that it can no longer reproduce; this can be done by removing part of the reproductive organs or by rendering the organs non-functional while keeping them intact.

Historically, animals were castrated to promote rapid growth and weight gain, as well as to increase physical strength, since the nutrients consumed were not diverted toward reproduction.

Islam prohibits this type of castration because it leads to the extinction of the animal's lineage (preventing the continuation of the species) and deprives the animal of a fundamental instinct: the drive to propagate its kind.

"Indeed, the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) strictly forbade the confinement of any living being and the castration of animals." (Narrated by Al-Bazzar). In addition to prohibiting the neutering of animals, Islam also upholds animal freedom by forbidding their confinement in ways that remove them from their natural habitats. Such confinement deprives animals of their liberty and access to their preferred food, and can deny them the opportunity to reproduce—ultimately potentially leading to their extinction.

Like humans, animals can experience stress or emotional distress when confined in cages—especially when kept in isolation without a mate. After all, animals, just like humans, possess an innate instinct to live in pairs.

And so it is; wallahu ‘alam (Allah knows best).

Etiquette for Animal Slaughter

Fundamentally, livestock are raised for human consumption; the moment of slaughter marks the fulfillment of their purpose. However, the slaughtering process must adhere to proper etiquette. According to the Director of the Assessment Institute for Foods, Drugs, and Cosmetics of the Indonesian Ulema Council (LPPOM MUI), the Sharia-compliant steps for slaughtering an animal are as follows:

1.              Ensure the animal is healthy and free from defects. It is preferable to have a recommendation from the local livestock agency or department.

2.              Do not treat the animal roughly during slaughter; it must be handled humanely. Use a sharp knife. Furthermore, animals awaiting slaughter must not be able to see those currently being slaughtered; even the act of sharpening the knife should not be done within the sight of the animal to be slaughtered.

3.              It is *Sunnah* (recommended practice) to face the *Qibla* during the slaughtering process.

4.              The slaughter is performed at the neck and must sever three specific passages—the esophagus and the windpipe (trachea)—without completely severing the head.

5.              After slaughter, the sacrificial animal should be placed on a clean surface or hung up to maintain hygiene.

6.              Allow a pause of 5–10 minutes between the slaughter and the skinning or butchering process to ensure the animal is truly dead. Wait until movements associated with *rigor mortis* have ceased and the ATP (adenosine triphosphate) levels have dissipated. Another indicator is the lack of response when the animal's eyes are opened.

Furthermore, animals awaiting slaughter must not be able to see those currently being slaughtered; even the act of sharpening the knife should not be done within the sight of the animal to be slaughtered.

It is narrated that the Messenger observed a man placing his foot on a goat's cheek while sharpening his blade, all while the goat was looking at him. He said: "This is unacceptable. Do you wish to kill it multiple times?"

It is narrated from Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him): "If one of you sharpens his blade, he should not do so while the goat to be slaughtered is watching."

Even herding the goat to the slaughtering site must be done gently. Ibn Sirin narrated that Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) saw someone dragging a goat to be slaughtered and striking it with a whip; Umar rebuked him, saying: "Lead this animal to its death gently."

It is *Sunnah* to lay the goat down when it is about to be slaughtered. Ibn Umar did not like eating slaughter that when slaughtered was not directed towards the Qibla. The goat should not be slaughtered while standing or kneeling, but lying down. This will be easier for the goat. Scholars agree and it is also the practice of Muslims that the animal to be slaughtered is laid on its left side because this method makes it easier for the person slaughtering to take the knife with the right hand and hold the animal's head with the left hand.

Slaughter is carried out around the esophagus and labia. The labah is the depression above the chest and camels are also slaughtered in this area.

Place the soles of your feet on the side of the slaughtered animal. Anas bin Malik RA said: "The Messenger of Allah slaughtered the sacrificial animal with two rams that were white and black and had horns. He slaughtered them with his hands, saying basmalah and takbir, and he placed one of his feet on the sides of the two sheep."

Tasmiyah or saying bismillah. "And do not eat animals that Allah does not name when slaughtering them, in fact such an act is an act of wickedness..." (Al-An'am: 121).

Before slaughter, the welfare of the sacrificial animal must be considered. During transport, the vehicle's capacity must ensure the animal has room to move. Upon arrival at the destination, the animal must not be allowed to jump out; instead, it must be unloaded at a designated facility to ensure a comfortable descent. Subsequently, herding the animal toward the holding area or slaughter site must be done carefully, without roughness. Sacrificial animals should not be forced to move quickly; they should be allowed to move naturally. The holding area should be fitted with "carpets" or mats to ensure the animal's comfort and prevent injury. Attention must also be paid to the supply of feed and water, as well as the condition of the enclosure. Proper techniques for casting (bringing the animal down) must be employed. Hygiene is crucial regarding both the environment and the animal; this ranges from thoroughly cleaning the slaughter site beforehand to using clean water to wash the meat. 

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Islamic Ethics Regarding Experimental Animals

We often hear the term "guinea pig" (or "test rabbit"). Indeed, rabbits are frequently used as experimental subjects in research. They are often used, for instance, to test drugs whose efficacy or potential dangers are unknown. Islam provides guidelines regarding this matter.

The website http://fkh.ipb.ac.id/ discusses the principles of animal welfare in biomedical research. There are three fundamental principles for applying animal welfare in biomedical research: respecting the form of life or the animal itself (*respect*), analyzing benefits and harms (*beneficence*), and upholding fairness (*justice*). Furthermore, ethical principles for conducting research involving animals must adhere to the "3Rs" (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) and the "5 Freedoms" (*freedom*).

*Respect* entails valuing the animal as a form of life and a creation of Allah SWT. This prevents us from conducting research that lacks utility—research driven merely by curiosity. Examples include repeated injections or multiple surgeries performed solely to minimize the total number of animals used, or the use of non-recommended euthanasia drugs that cause pain or dangerous side effects simply because they are cheaper than the recommended options.

In the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki, the World Medical Association established guidelines for the use of animals in research. Research must be scientifically grounded. It states, "..... the welfare of animals used for research must be respected."

The principle of *Replacement* involves avoiding the use of animals in research whenever possible—for example, by using organ, tissue, or cell cultures instead of live animals. Additionally, efforts should be made to use animals of a "lower" biological order; for instance, substituting monkeys with rats, rats with poultry, poultry with fish, and so on.

The second principle, *Reduction*, involves developing strategies to use fewer animals while still generating the same amount of data. The goal is to maximize the information gained from an experiment without increasing the number of animals or the extent of treatments (and the associated pain caused by research procedures), thereby maximizing benefits while avoiding additional suffering or an increase in the number of test animals. The principle of Refinement involves modifying husbandry management or research procedures to enhance animal welfare and to reduce or eliminate pain and stress in test animals.

These three ethical principles must be combined with the "Five Freedoms" of animal welfare: freedom from hunger and thirst; freedom from discomfort; freedom from pain, injury, and disease; freedom from fear and distress; and freedom to express natural behavior.

Biomedical research requires the involvement of veterinarians in both its execution and oversight. Furthermore, research proposals must obtain approval and undergo supervision by an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) established at various institutions and universities. IPB, for instance, has an Ethics Committee responsible for evaluating, supervising, and providing input on research involving test animals. Scientific journals even require the inclusion of an ethics committee approval letter as a prerequisite for publication. ****

Islam Obliges Farmers to Uphold Animal Welfare

 

In general, there are similarities between how Islam regulates proper conduct toward animals and livestock and the concept of animal welfare that has developed globally over time.

Raising livestock is no trivial task. One *hadith* recounts how rainfall occurs because of animals. In a *hadith* narrated by Ibn Majah, the Messenger said: "When people refuse to pay *zakat* (alms), rainwater is withheld from the sky. Were it not for the livestock, rain would never fall."

Then, there is a *hadith* narrated by Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him): "It is not permissible for a man who has purchased a pregnant goat or camel to accompany me [to battle] until he awaits the birth of its offspring." Such is the profound regard for livestock etiquette. So, folks, even a pregnant goat can delay someone from becoming a *mujahid* (warrior for the faith). Remarkable!

Animal husbandry is one of the earliest forms of worship in the world. One of the first lessons on worship that Prophet Adam taught his children involved offering a sacrifice. To do so, he had to strive to provide the best possible offering. Cain (Qabil) chose to work as a farmer, while Abel (Habil) became a livestock herder. Ultimately, because Abel’s offering was deemed superior, it was accepted, and he was united in marriage with Iqlima—the woman they had both sought to marry. Abel’s offering was accepted because he presented the fattest, finest, and strongest sheep; the same could not be said for Cain.

Thus, paying attention to animal welfare is of great importance. In the academic world, among experts and conscientious individuals, the concepts and movements known as "Good Animal Practice" or "Animal Welfare" have emerged. There are three crucial aspects of animal welfare: welfare science, ethics, and law. Welfare science measures the effects on animals in various situations and environments from the animals' own perspective. Welfare ethics addresses how humans *ought* to treat animals, whereas welfare law concerns how humans *must* treat animals. Animal welfare is an effort to provide suitable environmental conditions for animals, thereby improving their psychological and physiological states. It reflects a human commitment to enhancing the quality of life for animals that have historically been confined in cages or tethered, unable to move freely. Animal welfare refers to the well-being of animals. Respect for animal welfare is often based on the belief that non-human animals are sentient and that consideration should be given to their well-being or suffering, especially when they are under human care. This concept emerged from the concept of animal rights—the fundamental rights of animals to a decent life free from human interference. Animals have the right to protection and humane treatment by humans regarding their care, housing, transport, utilization, slaughter methods, and euthanasia. This aligns with Islamic guidelines; a Hadith narrated by Anas bin Malik (RA) states that the Prophet (PBUH) forbade the confinement of livestock (without a reason justified by religion).

The world's first animal welfare organization, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA), was established 200 years ago, in 1824. In 1840, Queen Victoria granted her royal patronage, transforming the SPCA into the RSPCA (Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals). Various animal welfare organizations have campaigned for the adoption of a Universal Declaration of Animal Welfare (UDAW) at the United Nations. In principle, this Universal Declaration aims to raise global awareness that animals, as living beings, also experience pain and suffering. Fundamentally, animal welfare is recognized as a crucial issue within the context of social development for nations worldwide. “Treating animals humanely is a reflection of a civilized society!”

One of the animal welfare concepts widely adopted by animal lovers is that of the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA). The WSPA’s animal welfare framework is known as the “Five Freedoms”: freedom from hunger and thirst; freedom from heat and discomfort; freedom from injury and disease; freedom from fear and distress; and freedom to express normal, natural behavior.

The Indonesian government has actually made significant progress in this area. Law No. 6 of 1967 concerning Basic Provisions on Animal Husbandry and Animal Health addresses animal welfare in Article 22; this covers housing and enclosures, rearing and care, transportation, usage and utilization, methods of slaughter and killing, as well as humane treatment and protection by humans.

Subsequently, Law No. 18 of 2009 concerning Animal Husbandry and Animal Health was enacted. Article 1 defines animal welfare as "all matters relating to the physical and mental state of animals—measured against natural behavioral standards—that must be implemented and enforced to protect animals from improper treatment by humans utilizing them."

Article 66 outlines measures to be taken for the sake of animal welfare, covering capture and handling; housing and enclosures; rearing and care; transportation; slaughter and killing; and humane treatment and protection. Specific provisions include humane practices—such as capturing and handling wildlife in accordance with conservation laws—and ensuring housing and enclosures allow animals to express their natural behaviors. Furthermore, rearing, safeguarding, care, and protection must be carried out to ensure animals are free from hunger and thirst, pain, abuse and misuse, as well as fear and distress.

Animal transportation must be conducted properly to ensure animals remain free from fear, distress, and abuse. Similarly, slaughter and killing must be performed in a manner that ensures animals are free from pain, fear, distress, abuse, and misuse. Article 302 of the Criminal Code (KUHP) prescribes a prison sentence for anyone who, without a legitimate reason or by exceeding reasonable limits, intentionally harms or injures an animal or impairs its health—including by deliberately withholding food.

An "Animal Needs Index" (ANI) has even been developed; this method was devised by Austrian scientists in 1999. Key elements of the ANI include freedom of movement, social contact, flooring quality, housing quality, and the quality of human care provided to the animals.

The "battery cage" model is rejected because it is inhumane. Battery cages are small enclosures that prevent livestock from moving; the animals remain huddled in place all day, with the aim of converting all their feed into meat. This clearly contradicts animal welfare principles. The proper approach is free-range farming, which provides access to the outdoors—mimicking the natural living conditions animals experienced before human intervention.

Animal emotions have long been a subject of expert study. Professors Ian Duncan and Marian Dawkins have focused particularly on the animals' feelings. This approach reflects the conviction that animals should be regarded as sentient beings. Duncan wrote: "Animal welfare is concerned with the feelings experienced by the animal. Animals have their own subjective feelings."

The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) is an intergovernmental body responsible for improving animal health worldwide. The OIE promotes animal welfare and the safety of animal-derived food products. Animal welfare refers to how an animal copes with the conditions in which it lives. An animal is considered to be in a state of good welfare if—as demonstrated by scientific evidence—it is healthy, comfortable, well-nourished, safe, able to express innate behaviors, and free from unpleasant states such as pain, fear, and distress.

These five freedoms are interconnected; if one is not met or is compromised, it affects the others. This leads to mental suffering and pain, impacting the animal's physical and psychological condition.

The final factor is freedom from fear and distress, which entails providing conditions and treatment that prevent mental suffering. Prolonged poor welfare conditions trigger disease—a tangible manifestation of compromised animal welfare—resulting in chronic suffering for the animal.

Physiologically, changes in animal welfare activate the central nervous system (CNS) and elicit responses from both the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system. Autonomic nervous system responses affect the Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary (SAM) system and the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS). SAM system activation leads to increased cardiac output (tachycardia, cardiac muscle contraction), increased blood flow to muscles (peripheral vasoconstriction, splenic contraction), and increased respiratory activity (increased respiratory rate, bronchiolar relaxation). Conversely, the PNS response results in decreased cardiac output (bradycardia).

In general, changes in animal welfare status lead to stress, manifesting as increased adrenocortical activity, reduced reproductive hormonal activity, decreased performance, chronic hypertension, increased disease susceptibility, gastric ulcers, delayed wound healing, cardiovascular pathologies, immunosuppression, and even death.

Neglecting the welfare of livestock and animals destined for slaughter causes fear, distress, and pain. Such conditions can arise during slaughter, transport, and marketing due to limitations in forming social groups and inadequate feed and water supplies. Pre-slaughter stress negatively impacts carcass quality, resulting in the condition known as Dark, Firm, and Dry (DFD) meat. Dark, Firm, and Dry (DFD) meat occurs as a result of pre-slaughter stress, which depletes muscle glycogen reserves. This condition leads to reduced lactic acid levels in the muscles and raises the meat's pH above normal levels. Under these conditions, the post-mortem process is compromised, resulting in meat that appears darker, firmer, and drier; generally, such meat is tougher and less palatable. High meat pH makes the meat more susceptible to bacterial growth. DFD beef serves as an indicator of stress, injury, disease, or fatigue in the animal prior to slaughter.

Good Animal Practice (GAP)

Livestock production must prioritize animal well-being—ensuring freedom from hunger, poor housing conditions, pain, disease, and handling-related stress. Practices include avoiding mutilation and invasive procedures, minimizing the use of antibiotics and hormones, and reducing livestock transport, among others. Livestock must be respected and treated with kindness, courtesy, and dignity.

GAP addresses public health by ensuring quality—including through the use of medicinal plants. European supermarkets, for instance, implement standards developed by bodies that establish codes of practice. These standards respond to consumer demands regarding agricultural production methods and their impact on health and the environment. Codes of practice cover food quality (ensuring health safety at every stage), social impact (requiring positive outcomes for smallholder farmers and decent working conditions), and environmental friendliness (producing food through sustainable farming systems that do not harm the environment).

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Organic Farming as Islamic Agriculture

 

Human activities must not cause damage to anything; likewise, farmers must not harm the natural environment. However, modern agriculture—reliant on chemical inputs—has damaged nature and harmed natural predators of pests.

In recognition of this, superior agricultural methods have emerged—methods that are, in fact, more aligned with Islamic principles. Organic farming, LEISA (Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture), and smart farming represent a shift away from the practices of the Green Revolution. Organic farming is a form of agriculture that avoids or drastically minimizes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, plant growth regulators, and stimulants. It is grounded in the principle of returning to nature. Nature functions as a unified whole comprising many parts—much like an organism and its organs. All components operate in harmony, serving and sharing with one another. Each part plays a distinct role, complementing the others and creating synergy to achieve optimal, sustainable balance. This reflects an organic nature, where the system harmoniously protects and nurtures its constituent parts.

Organic cultivation is by no means a new concept. As early as 5,000 BCE, farmers were using animal manure and plant residues to enrich the soil. Techniques such as crop rotation, intercropping, and the piling of plant residues were also practiced. The use of manure and compost was even documented in the Roman Empire between 23 and 79 CE. In Indonesia, organic farming skills have long been passed down from generation to generation. Examples include the swidden farming systems of the Dayak tribes in the interior of Kalimantan—adapted to soils containing toxic levels of aluminum—and the shifting cultivation practices of the Batak and Malay peoples, which effectively restore soil fertility. Other examples are the Javanese *Surjan* system, suitable for land with uncontrolled water conditions; intercropping systems that prevent outbreaks of pests and diseases; the "slash-and-burn" method used in Lampung and Sulawesi pepper farming to improve soil structure and consistency; seasonal forecasting systems used by the Batak, Javanese, Dayak, and Balinese to manage pest attacks; and the *Bondang* system in Silo Village, North Sumatra, which is highly effective in maintaining environmental balance.

It is worth noting that Muslim farmers and agricultural experts were pioneers in establishing the foundations of global agricultural knowledge; their contributions to world agriculture have been immense.

Prohibited Cultivation Practices

Any plant that is forbidden to consume—or whose use is prohibited except in cases of emergency—is also forbidden to cultivate; examples include *hashish* (cannabis) and similar substances. The same applies to tobacco: if one holds the view that smoking is harmful and *haram* (forbidden), then cultivating it is likewise considered *haram*.

Furthermore, Muslims are prohibited from cultivating or producing crops that are forbidden for Muslims, even if those crops are not forbidden for non-Muslims. For instance, a Muslim is not permitted to raise pigs for sale to Christians. On this same basis, Islam forbids the sale of grapes—which are inherently *halal* (permissible)—to a person known to intend to process them into alcohol.

Any form of cultivation or agricultural method that causes harm is strictly prohibited. Examples include planting short-rooted seasonal crops in water catchment areas, particularly on land with steep or rugged topography. The detrimental impact on the natural environment is evident, particularly for downstream areas, which face flooding during the rainy season and drought during the dry season. The insights and guidance of conservation experts must be heeded. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) demonstrated a deep concern for environmental preservation. He and his companions implemented conservation practices—such as establishing protected areas (*hima*) and restricted zones (*al-Harim*), as well as rehabilitating abandoned land (*Ihya al-mawat*)—while simultaneously ensuring the rights of wildlife, including both animals and plants, were respected.

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