Technologies Created by Muslim Scientists

 

Muslim engineers were the founders of world agricultural technology. The impact of the "Islamic Green Revolution" is truly extraordinary. In the first four centuries of Islamic rule, the development of the agricultural sector in the Islamic world developed very quickly. Agricultural progress at that time had become a support for the expansion of the power of the Islamic caliphate. Islamic civilization became a world superpower at that time. The development of the agricultural sector in the golden era of Islam was driven by the emergence of technology and various equipment for farming.

Islamic Irrigation System

Early Islamic era irrigation technology was able to both bring in water and drain swamps. The irrigation systems developed in the Islamic world contain interesting technological and sociological aspects (Ahmad Y Al-Hassan and Donald R Hill in their book "Islamic Technology, an Illustrated History"). They developed water lifting equipment, water storage methods, and water distribution. In fact, they also succeeded in creating techniques for finding water sources, both hidden and underground systems (qanat).

As a result, the Islamic Caliphate succeeded in developing agriculture along the Tigris River (Iraq), where there were 200 villages with advanced agriculture. Water from the Euphrates River flowed to Mesopotamia, while water from the Tigris flowed to Persia. In this way, farmers can obtain irrigation water for their agriculture.

Not only that, the Abbasid Caliphate pioneered the draining of swamps for agricultural land, as well as fertilizing dry fields. It is not surprising that Iraq was known as a leading agricultural and plantation area at that time. It is not surprising that Iraq is called heaven on earth.

The desert becomes a field, they can even 'turn' the desert into a plantation. Arab countries, most of whose territory consists of dry land and desert, can be used as agricultural land thanks to technology and good irrigation systems.

Likewise in Andalusia. Farmers apply irrigation techniques and build irrigation canals to develop their agriculture. Under Islamic rule, Andalusia was transformed into a fertile plantation area. Along the Guadalquivir (Spain), there are 12 thousand villages that have fertile agricultural land worked by Muslim farmers. Likewise agricultural land in Egypt and Iraq. In Fayyum Province, Egypt, there are 360 ​​villages, each of which can provide the food needs of the population of all of Egypt.

Agricultural progress is equipped with the right knowledge of farming systems. The agricultural revolution, by introducing new crops as well as extensification and intensification through irrigation, has created a complex and varied agricultural system. Land that originally only produced one type of crop each year, was 'transformed' by Muslim farmers 2-3 times with different types of crops in rotation. As a result, agricultural production is sufficient to meet the needs of the growing urban population.

Soil-Tilling Plows

The animal-drawn plow used for tilling soil was originally created by Muslim agricultural engineers. A census conducted in 8th-century Egypt revealed that, out of 10,000 villages, not a single one possessed fewer than 500 plows.

The historian Al-Maqrizi documented the use of the plow as an agricultural tool within the Islamic world. According to him, the plow served to loosen the soil prior to planting and sowing seeds. As noted by Al-Hassan and Hill, citing the historian Al-Marqasi, farmers employed plows before cultivating sugarcane; Egyptian farmers would plow the land six times before planting the crop.

These plows were constructed from iron and featured tooth-like projections, resembling a brush. Muslim farmers utilized animals, such as oxen, to pull the plows. Muslim agricultural engineers developed distinct plowing techniques suited to various types of terrain. During that era, they authored manuals on land cultivation, such as *Kitab Al-Filaha Al-Nabatiya* (The Book of Nabataean Agriculture) by Ibn Wahshiyya. As scientific knowledge advanced, Muslim engineers continued to refine plow designs. Islamic civilization succeeded in creating disc plows tailored to specific soil types, ensuring that furrows were not cut excessively deep.

Harrows and Soil Forks

Other agricultural tools developed included harrows and soil forks. The fork—another animal-drawn implement—served to break up soil clods covering the seeds; it was used following the initial plowing process. Several designs existed at the time, such as the *Al-Mijarr* and the *Al-Mislafah*. Both consisted of a beam equipped with teeth for harrowing the land. The *Al-Mijarr* features holes at its ends and two pairs of tethering ropes, whereas the *Al-Maliq* consists of a wide wooden plank drawn by an ox; the *Al-Maliq* is used to level the furrows created by the plowshare for seed sowing. Both types of implements remain in use in various Islamic countries across the globe to this day.

Meanwhile, the harrow is another soil-cultivating tool made of wood, used to rake the soil and cover the seeds. One type of harrow used during that era was known as the *Al-Musyt*; it consisted of a crossbar fitted with teeth and a central handle.

Spades and Hoes

Muslim farmers successfully created soil-digging tools such as the spade, known as *al-isyat*. This tool was used for cultivating land that did not require a plow, such as vegetable and fruit gardens. Another type of spade, known as *al-mijnah* or *al-mijrafah*, was also known at the time and was used to lift and move excavated soil. Farmers of that era also used hoes to dig the soil; one specific type was called *al-miza’ah*.

Sickles for Cutting Crops

Muslim farmers also developed harvesting tools, specifically sickles or blades. These tools came in various forms—some serrated and others smooth-edged. Designs varied, ranging from those with a curved handle end to those with a blade that curved forward along the line of the stroke.

Harvesting Tools

After harvesting, the process proceeded to threshing—separating the grain from the stalk—a step historically known in farming as *pengirikan*. Several threshing methods existed in the past; one involved using livestock, such as oxen, to tread upon piles of wheat. The final stage was winnowing, which served to separate the chaff from the grain kernels. Most of these agricultural technologies remain in use today.

Crop Improvement Science

During this era of Muslim scientific advancement, Muslim agricultural experts developed new plant varieties using various methods. Techniques such as grafting and cross-breeding are still practiced today.

Muslim scientists introduced new plant varieties and disseminated them across various regions, enabling land that previously supported only one crop cycle per year to be intensified to two or three cycles through crop rotation. Consequently, agricultural production increased, allowing for the needs of a growing urban population to be met.

Under Islamic rule, Andalusia was transformed into a fertile agricultural region. Along the Guadalquivir River in Spain, there were 12,000 villages featuring fertile agricultural lands cultivated by Muslim farmers. The same was true for the farmlands of Egypt and Iraq. In Egypt's Fayyum Province, there were 360 ​​villages serving as centers of food production, while along the Tigris River in Iraq, there were 200 villages with advanced agriculture.  *****